User:Maryma0311/Sociological Theory of Diffusion

The study of the diffusion of innovations in social groups and organizations has been rapidly increasing in recent years due to the curiosity in the process of social change and is “fueled by interest in institutional arguments and in network and dynamic analysis."

Sociology is the media spread impact on the community level discussions in sociology, communication studies and sociology is interdisciplinary, but also by the greater impact of social psychology. Dissemination of sociology of human propagation phenomena as the research object, using from sociology, communication studies, journalism and social psychology theories and methods, focusing on the viewpoint of human behavior and the spread of social construction, social development and social change mutual relations.

The Background of Diffusion
Since the mid-19th century, the rise of business newspapers in the United States began to go beyond the limited spread between individuals and the formation of mass communication. Mass Communication thus constantly penetrate people's lives, newspapers, movies, television, radio, etc. become part of life at the same time and changed people's thinking. Especially in the 20th century, the arrival of the Internet era, the mass media have become an integral part of modern human society. From the media as an important variable in human society began to appear. Its nature and impact of research and reflection gradually systematized, corresponding to the spread of science in the formation of mid-20th century. Similarly, the face of the mass media in the breadth and depth extensions, single from journalism or communications in perspective the analysis of the mass media has become stretched, and the exchange and integration of other disciplines to become the only way out of this dilemma. It is in response to the spread of sociological impact of mass media evolving creation and growing up.

The Concept of Diffusion
In Everett Rogers’ book, Diffusion of Innovations, Rogers explains that diffusion is a process in a social system where an innovative idea or concept is spread by members of the social group through certain ‘channels.’ He further explains that there are four elements that effect how and how quickly a new idea spreads. These four elements are : In a study by Surry and Farquhar, researchers explain that the theory of diffusion is used in occupations ranging from marketing to agriculture in order to ensure that new products, ideas, and techniques are well adopted by the social group. The concept of diffusion is of particular interest in the marketing field as this concept factors into the success or failure of new ads or products. Understanding this theory helps marketer’s craft how the public will perceive each innovation.
 * The innovation itself
 * The types of communication channels used
 * The amount of time the social group is exposed to the innovation and
 * The nature of the social group

The speed at which an innovation spreads through a mass of people depends on how well an idea is perceived by the audience. Innovations that aren’t well matched with existing techniques are not as well accepted and diffused through the group. Since social structures are naturally designed in a hierarchy, depending on the type and source of an innovation, different ideas follow different routes or courses in the hierarchy.

The study of the diffusion of innovations has led to advancements in three important aspects of social change. This includes what qualities of an innovation lead to successful diffusion, the effect of peer networking and conversations when it comes to spreading ideas, and the importance of various ‘user segments (Robinson). For peer networking, which is usually within the small local area networks (LANs), particularly home networks. Both wired and wireless home networks can be configured as peer to peer environments, such as small businesses or schools. However, the Internet made the peer networking worldwide with the development of technology. The theory of diffusion of innovations is different than other theories about the processes of change in that most changes are an improved ‘reinvention’ of a previously existing product or technique. These changes are most well perceived by the members of the group because they usually are more in line with the values and needs of the group.

There are five important qualities that factor into the success or failure of innovations. The first factor is the relative advantage, which is whether the new innovation surpasses similar existing ideas in terms of satisfaction and convenience. The second factor is the compatibility of the new idea and whether it is consistent with the needs and practices of the group members. The next factor is the simplicity of the innovation, and usually the simpler the innovation, the quicker the concept is adopted. The fourth factor is the trialability of an innovation and whether it can be tested without commitment for a period of time. Trialability will be an important predictor of adoption if—controlling for organizational characteristics and resources—programs that are directly exposed to a technique are significantly more likely to adopt it after the conclusion of the trial period. An innovation that has an available trial period provides less uncertainty to the group member who will be trying it. The last factor is whether there are observable results with use of the innovation. The more positive and visible results, the higher the likelihood it gets adopted as a permanent idea for the group.

Why Diffusion Happens
Sociological diffusion occurs when a social group or organization develops an innovation, idea, or behavior. Diffusion, in the context of corporations and businesses, is a way for an idea to be fleshed out. The diffusion of innovations provide insights into the process of social change, by observing the qualities that make an innovation successfully spread, and the importance of communication and networks. (Robinson) A new idea is diffused through a five-step decision-making process, knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, and confirmation. (Rogers) The definitions of each stage can be found below:


 * Knowledge- an individual’s first realization of the new innovation but lacks information and inspiration
 * Persuasion- The individual’s interest in the innovation spikes and the individual begins research
 * Decision- Taking the idea and weighing the positives/negatives of change under the new idea
 * Implementation- Addition of the innovation into the system and this stage is also used as a step to determine the usefulness of the innovation
 * Confirmation- the individual makes the decision to continue with the new innovation



The key part of the five stages is the decision, and points out the main reason why diffusion exists. The decision to either adopt or reject the idea is vitally important. The new concept is determined to either provide future success, and adopted by the organization, or a failure and the company continues to move forward in search for other ideas. An organization doesn’t want to be sinking time, energy, and in most cases money, into a poorly developed, or bad idea.

An important aspect of the diffusion and decision process is communication. As an idea further develops and spreads, it flows and moves through an organization by means of communication. Communication is a necessary condition for an idea to take hold. The innovation depends on the structure, and communication network of the organization in order for the idea to take root. In Emanuel Rosen’s book, The Anatomy of Buzz, the author points out the importance of communication networks in the spread and development of an idea within an organizational system. (Dobson)

Furthermore diffusion of innovation studies has shown that new ideas must fit with already established system in order for changes not only to occur, but also to occur easily. (Pinard) In order for an innovation to diffuse it cannot be faced with structural or ideological barriers. If a new idea can have limited obstacles and acknowledge places where change is logical, movement by means of the innovation will occur. (Freeman)

In the West, people have seen the Communication branch of sociology. We know that sociology is a social organization, social behavior and social problems such as the research object, which has a wider range. Communication focuses on the communication process, communication behavior, communication and dissemination of awareness of the relationship between phenomena, objects, more focused. Sociology was born in the former, while the communication studies produced in the post. Communication in the form of lessons, borrowed some sociological knowledge and methods, such as survey methods, statistical methods. Nowadays, sociology and other disciplines have begun to use the results of communication to enrich their research. Such research ranges overlap, intersect and learn from each other is completely normal, but both of they still have their own characteristics, which are independent of each other disciplines.

Networks and Environment
A firm's interaction with other players, along with its environment and organizational culture, are key in the social theory of diffusion.

The Use of Networks
The effects of networks and institutional environment are best explained through the use of social network theory. In such a model, nodes represent agents (companies, organizations) and ties represent a connection between two entities (company-client relationship, competitive relationship). Diffusion occurs when a novel idea, product, or process is implemented by an agent and permeates through these ties to others.

Network Benefits

 * To indicate the response-right time, right place, and right control mechanism.
 * In order to control the strategies.

Network Drawbacks
The gossip and virus and the bad influence between people will also been diffused.

Internal and External Diffusion
Information and ideas have been categorized into two modes of diffusion:

Internal diffusion is the spread of information and innovations within a network, flowing within a single adopting population. This may refer to actors within a given industry, or geographical network. Internal diffusion dynamics entail that innovative and early adopter firms introduce new ideas into a network, which are then picked up by the majority of firms and laggard firms. DiMaggio and Powell (1983) argue that firms search for the best ideas and practices and mimic new ideas that prove to work. This phenomenon is known as mimetic isomorphism, and ironically may lead to clustering of firm structure and practices. Additionally, firms are often forced to adopt new ideas as they are constantly competing with other firms; that is, firms want to seem modernized and seek legitimacy in implementing innovative practices. External diffusion refers to the introduction of ideas to a network from outside actors, or firms on the brink of the network. Outside actors include the mass media and ‘change agents.’ Mass media usually amplifies trends and movements that occur in the marketplace, introducing new innovations to network members, exposing ‘best practice’ ideas, and conveying new principles. Change agents are usually business professionals (lawyers, consultants, bankers, politicians) who spread new practices or aid in promoting new ideas. These individuals often introduce business models, legal strategies, or investment techniques that are picked up by several entities within a network and continue to diffuse. Oftentimes, such external diffusion leads to conformity of a set of corporate strategies or structures, a phenomenon DiMaggio and Powell called normative isomorphism.

Environmental & Cultural factors of Diffusion
Each agent’s environment and cultural makeup influence their decision to adopt an idea diffusing through a network. Some of the major characteristics of firms that influence their decision to innovate are clustering, weak ties, and firm size. A common occurrence in network theory is the idea of clustering, defined as a group of tightly connected agents. This manifests through similar firms locating themselves in close proximity to each other, such as Silicon Valley for technology firms and New York for banking services. Such clustering and close proximity increases the diffusion rate of ideas for firms within a cluster, as other firms are more likely to adopt an idea if another firm has adopted it within its cluster. An agent with weak ties is categorized by a connection to two or more clusters. These firms are integral in bridging together groups as they provide communication between large clusters. These firms are isolated firms, firms that are in two or more spaces, or are external change agents. Firms with weak ties introduce clusters to new, proven methods. Firm size has shown to have an influence on the rate of diffusion. Strang and Soule (1998) have shown that large, technical, and specialized organizations with informal cultures tend to innovate much faster than other firms. Thus, other smaller and more rigid firms attempt to mimic these ‘early adopters’ in attempt to keep up with competition.

The innovativeness of the idea needs to consider consumers’ perceptions of the adoption (Kalliny & Hausman, 2007). Takada and Jain (1991) confirmed that diffusion of innovation is greater in high-context cultures. On the other hand, Innovation Diffusion is influenced by the various out-groups in individualist societies.

Case study: Diffusion of business computing in organizations
To illustrate how different diffusion mechanisms can have varying effects in individual cases, consider the example of business computing. The 1980s and 1990s saw a rapid paradigm shift in the way many organizations operated; specifically, the rise of computers and related technologies saw organizations adopt these innovations to help run their business (Attewell 1992:1 ). As such, the diffusion of business computing through organizations during this time period provides an informative case study through which to examine different mechanisms of diffusion and their respective roles.

Networks
The roles of communication networks, as described by traditional theories of diffusion, have been to facilitate information flow about a new innovation and thus remove one of the major barriers to adoption. In this model, those closest to the initial champions of a new innovation are quicker to respond and adopt, while those farther away will take more time to respond (Rogers 1983; Strang and Soule 1998:272 ). This theory about the roles of networks in diffusion, while widely applicable, requires modification in certain cases. The diffusion of business computing in organizations is among them. Attewell (1992) argues that in this case, knowledge of the existence of computers and their business applications far preceded their eventual adoption. The main barrier to adoption was not awareness but rather technical knowledge of how to effectively integrate computing into the workplace. Thus, the most relevant networks to the diffusion of business computing were those networks that transmitted the technical knowledge required to utilize the innovation, not those that simply transmitted awareness of the idea behind the innovation.

Institutions
Institutional environments also played an important role in the diffusion of business computing. In order to adapt to evolving trends in business computing, organizations first needed to gain the technical knowledge necessary to operate the technology (Attewell 1992:3-6). The “knowledge barrier” could be reduced or partially circumvented, however, by the formation of new institutions. The new institutions that formed during this time period – such as service bureaus, consultants, and simplifications of the technology – lowered the knowledge barrier and allow for more rapid diffusion of the ideas and technology behind business computing. This explains the phenomenon in which, at first, many organizations obtained business computing as a service. However, after these service institutions effectively lowered the barrier to adoption, many organizations became capable of bringing business computing in-house (Attewell 1992:7-8).

Institution Battiers
If lack of academic leadership, clear vision and formal strategic planning, and the absence of clear institutional policies, processes and standards will surely make the diffusion difficult during the diffusion process.

Innovation decisions
Rogers (1983) notes two important ways in which innovations are adopted by organizations: collective innovation decisions and authority innovation decisions. Collective innovation decisions are best defined as a decision that occurs as the result of a broad consensus for change within an organization. Authority innovation decisions, on the other hand, need only the consensus of a few individuals with large amounts of power within the organization. In the case of organizations adopting business computing, authority decisions were largely impossible. As J.D. Eveland and L. Tornatzky (1990) explain, when dealing with advanced technical systems such as those involved with business computing, “decisions are often many (and reversed), and technologies are often too big  and complex to be grasped by a single person's cognitive power-or usually, to be acquired or deployed  within the  discretionary authority of  any single  organizational participant." As such, a much broader consensus within an organization was required to reach the critical mass of technical knowledge and authority necessary to adapt to business computing. This provided an opportunity for collective innovation decisions within the organization.

Rogers also mentioned that there were five categories of adopters of an innovation: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority, and laggards. However, there will be added a sixth group, which is non-adopters. The original five categories are graphed as the bell-shaped curve image. Rogers also estimated the percentage of each category, which in fact, are very similar to the proportions found in a normal bell-curve.