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Second generation immigrants in the United States refers to individuals born in the United States who have at least one foreign born parent. Although there is some ambiguity in reference to the definition of second generation immigrants, this definition is the one cited by major research centers such as the United States Census Bureau and the Pew Research Center.

Second generation immigrants are U.S. citizens by birth. U.S. citizenry is guaranteed in the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution; but political debate over repealing this right has increased in recent years. Advocates of this motion claim that this right attracts unauthorized immigration to the U.S. The repealing of birthright citizenship would have the greatest impact on second generation immigrants who are Mexican Americans, as Mexico is the country of origin for the majority of illegal immigrants in the U.S.

The growing presence of first generation immigrants in the US has led to a growth in the percentage of the population that can be categorized as second generation immigrants, as immigrants are more likely than native born adults to have children. In 2009, immigrants, both legal and unauthorized, were the parents of 23% of all children in the U.S. The process by which second generation immigrants undergo assimilation into U.S. society affects their economic successes and educational attainments, with the general trend being an improvement in earnings and education relative to the parental generation. Second generation immigrants have an increasingly important impact on the national labor force and ethnic make up of the nation.

Statistics
In 2009, 33 million people in the United States were second generation immigrants, representing 11% of the national population. Significant differences in income and education levels exist between the second generation immigrant population and the first generation immigrant population in the United States. Second generation immigrants are doing better overall and are assimilating more successfully into U.S. society.

Income
In comparison to first generation immigrants, second generation immigrants in the United States are more likely to achieve higher earnings. In 2008, the median annual earnings for second generation immigrants were $42,297 while the median annual earnings for first generation immigrants were $32,631. In the same year, the U.S. Census Bureau found that second generation immigrants had higher earnings overall, with 42% of the second generation immigrant population earning above $50,000 compared to just 31% of the first generation immigrant population. Second generation immigrants are also less likely to live in poverty relative to their first generation counterparts.

Education Levels
Second generation immigrants are more educated compared to first generation immigrants, exceeding parental education in many instances. A greater percentage of second generation immigrants have obtained a level of education beyond a high school diploma, with 59.2% having at least some college education in 2009. Also in 2009, 33% of the second generation immigrant population had a bachelor’s degree. The following graph depicts the data collected by the US Census Bureau on educational attainments for immigrant generations in the year 2009.

Theories on Cultural Assimilation
The majority of immigrants in the United States are nonwhite. Immigrants come from diverse backgrounds and have unique cultures taken from their native countries. The children of such immigrants in the U.S., coined as "second generation immigrants," experience a cultural conflict between that of their parents and that of mainstream U.S. society. The process by which these second generation immigrants are assimilated into society is increasingly being researched, and multiple theories on the cultural assimilation of second generation immigrants have been proposed.

Segmented Assimilation
The theory of segmented assimilation for second generation immigrants is highly researched in the sociological arena. Segmented assimilation focuses on the notion that people take different paths in how they adapt to life in the United States. This theory centers on the idea that while some immigrants assimilate smoothly into the white middle class of America, others experience downward assimilation, and some experience rapid economic success while preserving the values of their immigrant community. Children of middle class immigrants have a greater likelihood of moving up the social ladder and joining American mainstream society than children of lower class immigrants, as they have access to both the resources provided by their parents and to the educational opportunities afforded to the middle class in the U.S.

Downward Assimilation
Multiple factors affect the likelihood of downward assimilation, including race, location, and absence of mobility ladders. Generally, immigrants enter the sectors of the labor force that experiences low pay, commonly through jobs in the service sector and manufacturing. Such jobs seldom offer chances for upward mobility. The lack of good pay and resources available to immigrant parents affects the likelihood of their U.S.-born children being able to rise out of poverty. Children born to low skilled immigrants may experience assimilation into the impoverished groups of the U.S. Instead of adapting to the mainstream values and expectations of U.S. society, they take on the adversarial stance of the poor, entering the vicious cycle of poverty. According to the theory of segmented assimilation, second generation immigrants are less likely to experience downward assimilation when their race does not align with groups that experience prejudice and discrimination, such as African Americans. Also, immigrant families can enter well established ethnic groups in the United States to increases their pool of resources, lowering the possibility of downward assimilation for the children.

Criticism
Not all studies coincide with the theory of segmented assimilation. Studies have shown that second generation immigrant groups’ earnings are in line with native born groups. Arrest rates indicate similarities in the engagement of deviant behavior between second generation immigrants and the native white population in the U.S., contradicting the theory of segmented assimilation since these similarities supports the idea of assimilation towards the dominant norm.

Despite the barriers that come from being born to immigrants who are generally low skilled, have little education, and have less knowledge of the English language compared to U.S. natives, second generation immigrants are doing better than U.S. native groups of comparable racial background, contradicting the concept of downward assimilation. In a survey of immigrant offspring, native whites, native blacks, and native Hispanics, more overlap between these groups than the theory of segmented assimilation allows for was found, with one finding being similar arrest rates. A major factor that contributes to second generation immigrants doing so well is the drive to succeed and do better than their predecessors that is commonly instilled in these immigrants from childhood by their families. The theory of segment assimilation undermines such early socialization. Second generation immigrants of minority status in terms of ethnicity can also move up the social economic ladder via minority rights and resources available through programs directed at the betterment of minority groups in the U.S. Second generation immigrants are also entering the labor force with higher levels of education compared to their parents, which helps balance the negative effects associated with having low skilled immigrant parents.

Another major criticism of segmented assimilation is that it predicts downward mobility for children of low skilled immigrants when studies have shown that upward mobility is more likely due to the children already starting off in the bottom.

Other Theories
The theory of “straight line” assimilation, also known as linear assimilation or simple assimilation was developed based on the experiences of European immigrants to the U.S. in the early 20th century. This theory claims that the as time passes and second generation immigrants are exposed longer to the culture of mainstream U.S. society, the likelihood of assimilation into mainstream U.S. society increases. This theory predicts that each succeeding immigrant generation exhibits greater assimilation into mainstream society. With greater assimilation exhibited by each succeeding immigrant generation, unique ethnic characteristics that were clearly evident by the first generation fade away.

Differences within the Second Generation Immigrant Population
There exists much diversity in terms of ethnicities and races within the second immigrant generation population. This diversity among immigrants leads to a majority of second generation immigrants being bilingual, with 2/3 speaking a language other than English in their homes. In addition, differing ethnicity and racial groups have experiences that are unique to their group. Hispanics and Asian Americans are two of the major groups that make up the population of second generation immigrants in the United States.

Hispanics
In 2003, the Pew Research Center projected that in the next twenty years, second generation Hispanics will account for the largest percentage of the U.S. population. In 2003 it was also projected that, if current trends continue, over the next 20 years, 1/4 of the growth in the labor force will be due to second generation immigrants who are Hispanic. 1/7 of new students enrolling in schools within this same time period will also be second generation Hispanics. The increasing representation of second generation immigrants who are Hispanic in the areas of work, school, and the larger population can be attributed to the continuing influx of Hispanic immigrants and the high fertility rate of Hispanic immigrants, which is higher than any other segment of the national population.

As the number of second generation Hispanics grows, so will their political and economical influence. In relation to educational achievement, second generation Hispanics follow the general trend for second generation immigrants in the United States. In comparison to the first generation Hispanics, the second generation immigrants have a greater likelihood of intermarrying, aiding in the elimination of disparities along ethnic lines in the U.S. as an increasing number of interracial children with multiple heritages are being born.

Currently, Mexican Americans constitute the largest percentage of second generation immigrants in the United States. Among male high school graduates, the employment rates are comparable to those experienced by native born whites. When location is controlled for, the employment rate of Mexican American second generation immigrants surpasses that of native born whites. Among male Mexican American second generation immigrants who have less than a high school diploma, employment rates are also higher than those of native born whites. Mexican second generation women experience an employment rate slightly below that of native whites. This gap in labor participation increases for those with less than a high school diploma. Similar levels of labor force participation does not necessarily mean similar earnings, as part time is considered employment and Mexican Americans are more likely to take on jobs with lower pay.

Asian Americans
27% of the Asian population in the U.S. can be categorized as a second generation immigrants. The cultural assimilation of second generation Asians is diverse, coinciding with the theory of segmented assimilation. The diversification of the pool of Asian immigrants, where many are highly educated, plays a pivotal role in the assimilation of the second generation. This gives second generation immigrants a greater chance of being born into the middle class compared to other second generation groups. Highly skilled Asian immigrants tend to settle in suburbs upon their arrival to the United States, further promoting the assimilation of their children into white middle class society.

Asian second generation immigrants, like their Hispanic counterparts, tend to be bilingual. Children of Asian immigrants are likely to lose proficiency in their parents' native language while maintaining an emotional attachment to their family and heritage, which helps them develop their identity. While second generation Asian immigrants strive for the middle class white status, as many of their parents do, they develop a sensitivity to issues of race and ethnicity, which can be a major factor in the process of assimilation. In contrast to their parents, second generation Asian Americans are less likely to tolerate racial stereotyping and racial discrimination and are more aware of their minority status and the disadvantages associated with it. This has been linked to racism and discrimination experienced by minorities in the U.S. as this heightened sensitivity is common among all second generation groups of minority status. This heightened sensitivity evokes a heightened drive for success. This focus on success, in combination with the common Asian cultural value of family pride, helps explain the high educational successes seen by second generation Asian immigrants. College graduation rates are relatively high among second generation Asian Americans, with the highest rate seen among the Chinese second generation.

African Americans
Generally, first generation black immigrants of Caribbean origin in the United States tend to hold on tightly to their ethnic identities and resist the social pressures of identifying themselves as African Americans. Children born to these black Caribbean immigrants can easily enter the category of African Americans as they tend to lack the accents exhibited by their parents. A popular destination for these black immigrants is New York, where the second generation black immigrant population is significant.

Further studies reveal that the identification of second generation immigrants, of Caribbean heritage, as African Americans leads these children to be more aware of racial discrimination in the U.S. In addition, the assimilation into black society and black culture in the U.S. by these children is hindered by their parents’ oppositional stance to American black culture, contributing to identity conflict.

Racism is an important deterring factor to the process of assimilation for black second generation immigrants, as it is for other second generation immigrants of ethnic minorities. Children of middle class black immigrants undergo assimilation that coincides with one of the pathways theorized by segmented assimilation, in which they assimilate into mainstream society while attempting to hold on to their black culture. These children make use of the resources available to the middle class in the U.S. to prosper alongside their white counterparts, but are still affected by racial discrimination. They make use of so called “black spaces,” which are free of racism, to connect with other African Americans and reconnect with the cultures of their parents. Similar to Asian second generation immigrants born into the middle class, these black second generation immigrants of middle class status are also aware of their inferior position and the disadvantages associated with being an ethnic minority in the United States.