User:Matthew John Aguilera/sandbox

Urban forest inequity is an example of environmental injustice which occurs when certain communities within an urban area contain less greenery and vegetation than others. A study published in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health associates urban forest inequity with physical and emotional health issues, air quality, and higher surface temperatures. Researchers Ed Gerrish and Shannon Lea Watkins in a 2017 paper offered solutions to urban forest inequity, which included investment in marginalized communities and tree-planting initiatives, among others. Many examples of urban forest inequity can be seen in various cities across the world.

Urban Forests
Urban forests are areas of land covered by trees or other vegetation in and around places of significant human influence, particularly metropolitan and urban areas such as cities. Researcher Steven Strom in a 2000 paper found that the vast majority of urban forests, especially street trees, are located on public land. A 2020 study by specialists Eric M. Wood and Sevan Esaian and published in Ecological Applications found that urban forests help mitigate the impacts of climate change, and are important in maintaining the biodiversity of an urban area, particularly the avifauna (birds) of the area.

Urban Forest Inequity
Urban forest inequity is an example of environmental injustice. In a 2022 paper, researchers Amber Grant, Andrew A. Millward, Sara Edge, Lara A. Roman, and Cheryl Teelucksingh described urban forest inequity as a phenomenon in which the distribution of and access to trees and nature is inequitable in urban areas. Numerous studies, including the 2017 investigation done by researchers Ed Gerrish and Shannon Lea Watkins, have found a positive relationship between income and urban forest coverage. Inequitable distribution of greenery in urban areas may restrict an equal distribution of the benefits of urban forests, which include stress and anxiety reduction, a safe community environment, emotional fulfillment, mitigation of the effects of global warming, and more. There are many historical, cultural, and institutional factors which contribute to the current inequities in urban forestry management. A 2022 paper published in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health found that vulnerable residents of urban areas, particularly those of lower income, and those who live further from urban forests and green space, are particularly susceptible to the urban heat island effect. Examples of urban forest inequity are found in cities globally, some of which are listed below.

Associated problems
Some problems commonly associated with urban forest inequity include the urban heat island effect, health concerns, and inequitable distribution of environmental benefits. Environmental justice and spatial justice seek to understand differences in quality of life associated with uneven environmental conditions. In a 2022 paper, socio-spatial inequalities specialist Bernard Bret and geographer Sophie Moreau described environmental justice and spatial justice as two concepts defined by an interconnectedness between geographical space and quality of life. The Environmental Protection Agency has found that these environmental inequities are most often visible along racial, income, or national lines. Researchers in South Africa in a 2018 report found correlations between an increased risk of cancer and chemical poisoning, as well as of respiratory diseases like asthma, in communities negatively affected by environmental and spatial injustice, for individuals there may be more often be at risk of exposure to dangerous pollutants in water or in the air.

The Environmental Protection Agency defines the urban heat island effect as the phenomenon where urban areas experience higher temperatures than surrounding areas. Researchers Young-Hee Ryu and Jong-Jin Baik in a 2012 paper published in the Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology found that air temperature inside urban areas can be about 1–3°C or 1–7°F higher than rural or surrounding air temperatures, on average. The study found the effect as resulting from a variety of phenomena, which include but are not limited to: lower albedo on urban surfaces, anthropogenic heat release from buildings and vehicles, and reduced areas of evapotranspiration. Asphalt and concrete, surfaces more commonly found in urban areas, have a higher albedo than natural surfaces like trees, grass, or snow. In addition, evapotranspiration is a powerful cooling process, and low green space in urban areas may contribute to the urban heat island effect. The cooling mechanisms of high albedo and evapotranspiration do not work to cool the geographic area without the presence of urban forests. Additionally, the Environmental Protection Agency has found that lower-income communities and those of color are particularly susceptible to the phenomenon known as intra-urban heat islands, in part due to historical redlining.

Mitigation efforts
Efforts to address urban forest inequity often work to effectively combat both environmental and spatial injustice, in addition to urban heat islands; the Climate and Global Change Center at the University of Pittsburgh, as have the Environmental Protection Agency, cited the necessity of these efforts to include direct engagement with marginalized communities by activists and policymakers, increase public investment in historically underserved neighborhoods, and tighter government restrictions in regards to land use and pollution. A 2023 article published in the National League of Cities by specialists Joshua Pine, Kelly Aves, Kyle Funk, Zuhayr Ahmed, and Kyra Kocis, offered several potential solutions to combat urban heat islands, which included but were not limited to: an increase of green space by planting trees along streets or sidewalks, converting existing roof spaces to green roofs, replacing traditional pavement with sustainable alternatives, and active engagement of low-income communities, among others.

Examples
Some cities have historically faced problems concerning urban forest inequity. These cities may have a disproportionate amount of green space in higher-income communities or face criticism from environmental justice advocates. Beijing, China is often considered to be an example of this, demonstrated by a lack of accessibility to green spaces at large, compared to gated communities. Research conducted with data from the Beijing Green Spaces System Planning found that higher-income gated communities had more access to green spaces than lower-income residential communities, while also concluding that urban planning was not meeting the demand for public parks and playgrounds in the densely populated regions of the city.

New York City has historically faced challenges with urban forest inequity. Concrete in the city draws more heat and raises temperatures as a result of the urban heat island effect, increasing a need for shade to protect inhabitants. A 2023 editorial written by Erik Bottcher, Krishnan Gale, Maxwell Shekar, and Emily Nobel for the New York Daily News found many neighborhoods lack shade protection and may subsequently face temperatures "20 to 45 degrees hotter than those with more shade," which are typically lower-income communities. Specialists have often cited Chicago as sharing a similar problem to New York City, and is actively working to combat the lack of greenery and pollution by planting trees throughout its neighborhoods.

Researchers Bruce Mitchell, Jayajit Chakrabortty, and Pratyusha Basu for a 2021 paper published in International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health underwent a study to identify which regions in Delhi, India were experiencing urban heat at high levels, and consequently if they had sufficient green space, or areas with urban forestry of some kind. The results documented "how the spatial distribution of heat and green space relates to the spatial distribution of social vulnerability at the ward level in Delhi." Rafael Fernandez-Alvarez of Arizona State University conducted similar research on Mexico City, Mexico pertaining to the distribution of public green spaces for its inhabitants. It was found that these spaces may frequently be biased against marginalized populations. The research suggests that green space exists primarily in the wealthy areas of city, while the lower-income and more populated communities often lacked public green spaces.