User:Matthias Süßen/Climate Change Adaption In A Specific Region

Climate Change Adaptation in Greenland

Climate Change (CC) is defined as the “change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period of time (i.e., decades to millions of years).” As climate change - whether natural or anthropogenic (caused by human action) - impacts the livelihoods of people across the globe, responses i.e. ways to prepare and adjust under changing vulnerabilities become important. Such responses are commonly discussed under the term “adaptation” (IPCC, 2014).

Greenland is home to a total of 45,600 Inuit people, 80 percent of the national population (Nuttall, 2008). Primary economic activities of Inuit communities are subsistence hunting and fishing (Ford & Goldhar, 2012) offering a daily interaction with the natural environment. Over recent decades, climate change – Greenland being affected more strongly and quickly than elsewhere (IPCC, 2014) - has put pressure on the natural environment and thus the livelihood of Inuit people. Besides the decline of fish stocks, the country’s landscape is changing with the melting ice to reveal minerals, oil and gas. The latter have attracted interest from local and foreign investors for potential extraction of ‘natural capital’. As new industries are accompanied by new jobs, people and influences, lifestyles are changing. In short, Greenland is in transition; in terms of biophysical as well as cultural and social conditions.


 * 1) Effects of CC in Greenland

1.1 Biophysical

Due to its geographical location and global climatic patterns such as the North Atlantic Oscillation and volcanic activity (Box et al., 2009) the country has always been exposed to high levels of fluctuations in the natural environment (Hamilton et al., 2000). The anticipated warming of the oceans and resulting sea level rise (IPCC, 2014) are certain to result in coastal erosion, the melting of permafrost and decreased sea ice thickness (Ford & Goldhard, 2012). This in turn will affect the spatial distribution and health of animal species hunted for subsistence by Inuits (ibid.). Consequently, climatic change will trigger (or does so already) a change in livelihoods as discussed under the following sections.

1.2 Social

Against the background of historically regularly occurring movement of people or as Berglund puts it: “Greenland’s cultural history. . . is the history of many population groups who migrated to the country, lived there for a while, and then vanished: (1986 quoted in Hamilton, 2000: 194), a change of social conditions is nothing unusual for Greenlanders.

Yet, leaving the impacts of planned economic development of extraction on the global agenda to reduce greenhouse gas emissions aside - the Alcoa smelter alone is expected to emit 4,600 tonnes of sulphur dioxide and 450,000 tonnes of carbon dioxide annually (Nuttall, 2008) – the current social impacts are perhaps unusually far reaching.

Researchers report of changes in diets, health (mental and physical) and an increase in unemployment (e.g. Hansen et al., 2008; Hansen et al., 2016). On one hand, the establishment of new facilities for the extractive industries introduces new jobs, on the other hand, it interferes with traditional ways of life (Ford & Goldhar, 2012). Additionally, wage labour gives Greenlanders purchasing power and hence draws them deeper into the global market system. Another common drawback of new industries as discussed by for example Olsen and Hansen (2014) is often the lack of opportunities for participation in decison making by local people. This can result in conflict of property rights as well as rights for fishing and hunting grounds (Ford & Goldhar, 2012).

Lastly, to conclude this outline of ongoing transition processes, human relationships to nature need to be shifted back into focus. Throughout the described conditions, nature continues to not just re-appear as a topic but to be the backbone of the Greenlandic economy, future opportunities for further political independence and social livelihoods of Inuit communities. The relationship of Greenlanders to their natural surroundings is thus of crucial importance as it can either inhibit or encourage transition while being changed itself in reverse. The way in which human relationships are channelled is often via changing socio-economic conditions (Ford & Goldhar, 2012).

1.3 Political

Politically, Greenland is unique because of its remaining dependence on the Kingdom of Denmark after colonisation in 1721. In 1979, the Home Rule Government was established which gained further autonomous rights in 2008 thus moving the country towards self-rule (Nuttall, 2008). However, Greenland is still in need of financial assistant from the Danish realm which provides 60 percent of Greenland’s annual budget revenue (ibid.). It is for this reason or rather the desire to phase out financial support entirely i.e. gain full independence that the Home Rule Government strongly supports and even promotes arising opportunities for the extraction of unrenewable resources.

Within the 20th century, Greenland has experienced two major transitions focussing on the movement of animal populations and resultantly in food availability for Inuit people: the shift from seal hunting to cod fishing and then from cod to shrimp fishing (Hamilton, 2000; Rasmussen, 2007). Today, environmental conditions also offer entirely new economic opportunities. For one, mobility and global trade benefit from the retreat of ice caps as new shipping routes open up (Ford & Gordhart, 2012). Furthermore, the disappearing ice reveals and gives access to what lies underneath: a wealth of rare earths and hydrocarbons.

More than 60 years ago, Joseph Roucek, an American sociologist, already dreamt of lessening the world’s dependence on oil from Arabic countries by kick-starting the exploitation of the “Arctic fuels” (1951). Today, negotiations between the American multinational company Alcoa and the Greenlandic government over the construction of a large scale aluminium smelter in the small town (2,700 inhabitants) of Maniitsoq continue (Nuttall, 2008: Iglebaek, 2011; Bennett, 2017). Furthermore, the government decided to lift the ban on the extraction of radioactive minerals such as uranium continuing to even out the path to economic wealth creation. The United States Geological Survey estimated a total of 141 billion barrels of hydrocarbons to be held beneath Greenlandic surfaces (Gautier, 2007 in Nuttall, 2008) offering major sums of profit.

2. Climate Change and Traditional Knowledge

Living in a globalised world, we have grown used to one dominant system which is applied universally. In science, we reduce complex interactions to small components and we look for the truth in pursuit of factual knowledge. In political terms and as can be observed in common management system of e.g. food or energy, the governed are separated from the governors creating a dichotomy of subject vs. object or nature vs. culture (Berkes, 2008: p. 265). The ethos of mankind’s domination over nature for the the creation of monetary wealth persists. However, within this hegemonic system, pockets of diverse traditions, beliefs and worldviews strongly concerned with how we interact with nature still exist.

Berkes defines traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) as: “A cumulative body of knowledge, practice and belief, evolving by adaptive processes and handed down through generations by cultural transmission about the relationship of living beings (including humans) with one another and with their environment” (p.7). This definition offers a different take on the hegemonic understanding of knowledge and nature as we see it in modern science; it rejects reductionism, positivism and universalism. TEK appreciates the differences in how individuals and communities view the world, thus disregarding the notion of the ‘global village’ but embracing the social and spiritual meaning attached to ecology: the ‘sense of place’ (Berkes, 2008: p.6). Yet, TEK is not merely an esoteric idea but an alternative paradigm which stands for pluralism.

The debate surrounding climate change has brought attention to TEK. As a newly emerging field of research and concern, climate change research lacks the density of “brute facts”, the term as discussed under CPE. This potentially gives local people a different role as sources of knowledge, historically often far reaching based on narratives and experience passed down through generations. In that sense, Riedlinger and Berkes (2001) suggest a potential knowledge integration of TEK on a temporal and spatial scale alongside satellite imagery, weather stations, proxy data and archival material. The crucial difference necessary to be recognised in this approach is the willingness to collaborate and the interpretation of knowledge as a process (Berkes, 2008: p.162).

While questioning the term “knowledge” as defined by the dominant society, TEK also encourages a debate about prevailing power structures. The recognition of non-expert-knowledge would result in a change of existing (power) relationships by increasing the influence of indigenous communities on e.g. policy makers and the media who base their decisions and stories respectively on present “facts”. In short, the discussion of TEK is a highly political one.

2.1 Language

Greenlandic Inuits as a societal group are recognised for their “finely tuned ability to be flexible, to innovate, and to seize opportunities in the environment.” (Nuttall, 2010, p.22). Successful adaptation to changing climatic conditions is attributed to a specific ontology which includes the ability to relate to one’s world, making sense of it and reflecting on expectations about it; anticipation.

Furthermore, by diving into the linguistic roots and applications of the term ‘anticipation’, Nuttall introduces the words neriguaa (“to hope for, or to be hopeful of something”) (p.25) and aarleraa (“to be fearful, especially of bad weather”) (p.26). He then argues that “being prepared for uncertainty, disappointment, and failure […] is a hallmark of successful adaptation” (p.26). Hence, he approaches the named theme ‘fear and hope’ in a rather unexpected way, drawing conclusions about an entirely different framing of the world.

Pictures:

Flag: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_Greenland.svg

Inuits on boat: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Greenland,_Inuits_(js)1.jpg

Melting map: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Greenland_Meltdown_08072012_12072012.jpg

Ice sheet: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Greenland_Ice_Sheet.jpg

Reindeer hunter: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reindeerdrag.jpg