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Bibliography for Gentoo Penguin
D’Amico, V. L., Marcelo, B., Benzal, J., Coria, N., Vidal, V., Diaz, J. I., & Barbosa, A. (2015). Leukocyte counts in different populations of Antarctic Pygoscelid penguins along the Antarctic Peninsula. Polar Biol Polar Biology, 39(2), 199-206. doi:10.1007/s00300-015-1771-3

Williams, T. (1992). Reproductive endocrinology of macaroni (Eudyptes chrysolophus) and gentoo (Pygoscelis papua) penguins. General and Comparative Endocrinology, 85(2), 230-240. doi:10.1016/0016-6480(92)90006-6

Actams, N. J. (1992). Embryonic metabolism, energy budgets and cost of production of king Aptenodytes patagonicus and gentoo Pygoscelis papua penguin eggs. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Physiology, 101(3), 497-503. doi:10.1016/0300-9629(92)90501-g

Ibañez, A. E., Najle, R., Larsen, K., Pari, M., Figueroa, A., & Montalti, D. (2015). Haematological values of three Antarctic penguins: Gentoo ( Pygoscelis papua ), Adélie ( P. adeliae ) and chinstrap ( P. antarcticus ). Polar Research, 34(0). doi:10.3402/polar.v34.25718

Willmer, P., Stone, G., & Johnston, I. A. (2005). Environmental physiology of animals (2nd ed.). Retrieved from https://jajo66.files.wordpress.com/2010/10/environmental-physiology-of-animals.pdf

D’Amico, V. L., Coria, N., Palacios, M. G., Barbosa, A., & Bertellotti, M. (2014). Physiological differences between two overlapped breeding Antarctic penguins in a global change perspective. Polar Biol Polar Biology, 39(1), 57-64. doi:10.1007/s00300-014-1604-9

Physiology
Because Gentoos live in the frozen Antarctic, there is not much fresh water available to them. Much of the Gentoos' diets are high in salt so to counteract this, they eat organisms that have relatively the same salinity as sea water. This can still lead to complications associated with high sodium concentrations in the body, especially for Gentoo chicks. To combat this, Gentoos, as well as many other marine bird species, have a highly developed salt gland located above their eyes that takes the high concentration of sodium within the body and produces a highly saline-concentrated solution that drips out of the body from the tip of the beak.

Gentoo penguins do not store as much fat as the Adelie penguin, their closest relative, because Gentoos require less energy investment when hunting. The net gain of energy after hunting is greater in Gentoos than Adelies, so Gentoos do not need large energy stores as adults. As embryos, Gentoos require a lot of energy in order to develop. Oxygen consumption is high for a developing Gentoo embryo. As the embryo grows and requires more oxygen, the amount of consumption increasing exponentially until the Gentoo chick hatches. By then, the chick is consuming around 1800 mL O2 per day.