User:Meganr22/Sequential bilingualism

Proposed Article Organization - Group

 * 1) Introduction
 * 2) Sequential Bilingual Acquisition
 * 3) Modes of Acquisition (moved from its own section into newly created section)
 * 4) Relevant Theories
 * 5) Achieving Linguistic Competence with Sequential Language Acquisition
 * 6) (keep original sections)
 * 7) Majority vs Minority Languages (remove this section - it's not related to our topic)
 * 8) Factors Affecting L2 Acquisition (combined "success factors" and "obstacles" sections)
 * 9) individual factors
 * 10) affective factors
 * 11) age of onset
 * 12) Move "Motive" here, combine with "Self-belief and Motivation". Rename to "Motivation" 
 * 13) Move "L1 interference" here
 * 14) Move "Emotional Intensity" here
 * 15) social factors
 * 16) Move "familial and cultural factors" here?
 * 17) political and economic factor (maybe...)
 * 18) technological factor
 * 19) pedagogical factors
 * 20) Implications for teaching and learning
 * 21) Code Switching (Maybe delete? it seems irrelevant as well)

(Note to others: Our individual edits will follow this "new" organizational structure and will be tagged with our names!)

Editing Key- Megan
Underline : Edited from original article

No Underline: Not edited

*: note about edits made

Sequential Bilingual Acquisition (newly created section) - Megan
In contrast to simultaneous bilingualism which occurs within the first year of life, the sequential acquisition of a second language can occur at any age. As the dominant language of bilingual speakers is usually the native language or the language used with a higher frequency, the language which is acquired later in life is often weaker. Although this is frequently the case, there are some situations where the language acquired later in life through sequential bilingual acquisition can actually become the speaker's dominant language, whether that be because of language attrition or other external causes. Second language competence depends on a wide variety of factors, including the mode in which sequential language acquisition takes place and the age at which the second language is acquired.

Circumstantial bilingualism vs Elective bilingualism
Elective bilingualism means that L2 is acquired through voluntary language learning, such as choosing to take foreign language classes. Although these people continue to live in an environment where their first language is the dominant language, they are choosing to add another language to their linguistic abilities.

Circumstantial bilinguals, on the other hand, are those who are forced to l earn a second language due to their social, geographical, or political situations. For example, immigrants who relocate to a new country may learn the new language in order to communicate with their new community. For circumstantial bilinguals, child learners will enter a "functional" stage of learning the language after about two years of being in a new country. This means that they will be fluent or almost fluent, and have the necessary written and oral language skills to function in all aspects of life. Adult learners will most likely not enter the functional stage until they have been in the new country for 10 years.

Formal vs Informal Learning
Sequential language acquisition for L2 learners can occur in formal or informal settings. Formal language learning typically takes place in a classroom environment, where teaching of a second language is highly structured with a clear purpose. For example, when a Russian student takes a course of Arabic in school, the student is undergoing formal lessons  to acquire the second language. Informal language learning on the other hand can take place in a variety of settings outside of a classroom, including in the home, through media, or at work or school. The main characteristic that defines informal language learning is that it involves unstructured acquisition and it mostly occurs through daily social interactions. An example of this type of language learning in more naturalistic contexts could be that when a native Japanese speaking child is living in the United States, the child will informally learn English through interaction and attending class with English-speaking citizens. Sequential language acquisition can also occur with a combination of informal and formal learning. This would occur if, for example, a native Japanese-speaking child moved to the United States and started to learn English; the child could experience informal English language learning through social interactions with their peers and formal language learning if they were enrolled in an ESL class with formal, school-based instruction.

Achieving the Competence of a Native Speaker
Linguistic competence for sequential bilingual speakers can be influenced by factors such as age of acquisition, age of arrival and length of residence, and a number of other cognitive and environmental variables. Most linguists agree that linguistic competence comparable to a native speaker can be achieved when the second language is learned before the critical period of acquiring a language ends. It is more difficult to achieve a native-like competence when the language is learned at a later time in life. In terms of phonological competence, some studies have used measures of accentedness where subjects are rated on a scale from "native speaker" to "strong foreign accent."

Dominant versus balanced bilinguals - moved to its own section
There are two types of bilinguals: the dominant and balanced bilinguals. Dominant bilinguals are bilinguals who are more proficient in one language than the other. Balanced bilinguals are people who have equal proficiency in both their first language (L1) and L2. However, balanced bilinguals are not common, as people rarely use two languages in the same situation.

Grammatical versus Communicative Competence
Grammatical competence refers to the ability to correctly combine grammatical elements of a language. Communicative competence, on the other hand, considers both grammatical competence and the social-psychological determinants of language used by native speakers.

Communicative competence refers to knowing when saying something is appropriate or not in a culture. It also includes knowing how to interpret an intended message in an utterance with more than one possible meaning difference. For example, knowing that when you are asked "Can you open the door?" it means that someone is requesting you to open the door and not enquiring whether you are able to open the door.

With formal teaching of a second language the focus tends to be on grammatical competence that is comparable to native speakers, often leaving limited communicative competence for sequential language learners. Communicative competence could be enhanced with increased use of the second language or immersion in the second language.

Interactional Competence (new section)
In first language acquisition children implicitly learn how their linguistic actions relate to the reactions of others. Similarly, sequential L2 learners have knowledge of basic interactional capabilities when their starting to learn a second language. L2 speakers must draw on their basic interactional competence (BIC) in order to interact with native speakers. BIC, which is what nonnative speakers start with, is contrasted with applied interactional competence (AIC), which L2 learners eventually acquire after living in a host country and learning the host culture.

Motive Motivation (originally under "Success factors", now under "Factors Affecting L2 Acquisition") - Lucia
'This section combines the "Motive" and "Self-belief and Motivation" subsections from the "Success" and "Obstacles" section in the original article. Underlined portions are new, original citations can be preserved.'

 Main article: Motivation in second-language learning. 

Successful L2 acquisition is affected by one's motivation to learn and use /communicate with that the language too. Motivation refers to the purpose of learning and communicating in that specific language. The motive Motivation is determined by the interaction between environmental needs and opportunities as well as personal preferences, which is dependent on social contexts.

For learning an L2, T here are generally two forms types of motiv ation : Integrative Motivation and Instrumental Motivation. It is assumed that language acquisition is most successful when one learns a language because one truly liked the language and culture and possessed a desire to integrate into the culture in which the language is used. This form of motivation is known as integrative (or intrinsic) motivation. Developing a certain level of proficiency in the language becomes necessary because the community which one wants to immerse oneself into uses the target language in its social interactions. Thus, in order to operate socially in the community and become one of its members, one has to be sufficiently proficient in that target language. In contrast, Instrumental (or extrinsic) motivation is the opposite. People who are instrumentally motivated to learn a language acquires that language because they want to benefit from that language, like gaining something practical or concrete. There is a practical purpose for acquiring an L2, such as meeting the requirements for school or university graduation, applying for a job, requesting higher pay based on language ability, or even achieving higher social status. Here, there is little or no desire for social integration of the learner into a community.

 (original paragraph here moved - see below for new placement) 

While both integrative and instrumental motivation are essential factors of elements of successful language acquisition, research have determined integrative motivation as the main element in long-term maintence of a second language. success sustenance when learning a second language. Motivation undoubtedly has a profound impact on second language learning as well. There are two kinds of motivation, namely Integrative (intrinsic) and (instrumental) extrinsic motivation, as have been mentioned above. Intrinsically motivated students engage in the learning process because they are truly interested and enjoy the learning process; whereas extrinsically motivated learners learn in order to gain a reward or to avoid punishment. It has been shown that intrinsically motivated goals are more likely to achieve long-term success. Furthermore Additionally, self-belief has been acknowledged as able to potentially in influenc ing the effort and persistence invested involved in acquiring a desired level of second-language competence. Self-belief comprises two components: Self-efficacy beliefs and self-concept beliefs. The former refers to one's own belief as to whether he or she is they are capable of performing a given learning task and are consequently future-oriented; whereas the latter involves evaluations of one's general self-worth based on past experiences. It is said that low self-efficacy beliefs would pose as an obstacle in language learning because it indicates a lack of self-confidence and thus reduces the motivation to learn.

 (moved to here)  For communication purposes, which language a bilingual chooses to speak, motiv ation may interact with both the listener's identity and the environmental context—one language may be preferred to communicate with a parent or child, another to complete a business transaction. The social status or prestige associated with a language could also motivate one to use that specific language. For example, United States being a political and economic powerhouse, the motivation to learn and acquire English is huge. Young immigrants in this country are spurred to learn English as fast as possible, mostly within a single generation, and many third-generation immigrants speak only English, with little or no ability in the language of their grandparents.

Finally, attitudes about language can also affect L2 acquisition. In monolingual communities, negative attitudes towards other languages may cause a person to feel shame or fear of learning or using another language, which can deter learning. Contrastly, multilingual communities with more open-minded views of other languages may allow a person to feel pride or joy in learning a second language.

Affective Factors and Age subsection (under "Factors") - Lucia
Original text:

Individual Factors
In addition to biological, psychological and physical deficits, like hearing loss, mental retardation, motor deficits, neurological or psychiatric disorders, impairment in auditory system, as well as inability to extract linguistic features and impairment in representational or symbolic reasoning, there are other individual factors that could act as barriers to L2 acquisition.

Affective factors and Age
The learner's emotional state or affect can interfere with acquiring a new language because acquiring a new language inevitably involves practicing it in public and conversing with others. All these encompassed the possibility of making mistakes, resulting in embarrassment, and such anxiety can block the ability to receive and process new information. Thus, high self-consciousness and a reluctance to reveal their weaknesses and faults, coupled with feelings of vulnerability could greatly impede second language learning. Fear of embarrassment has been found to occur more in adults than children because adults are more self-conscious about speaking, making errors and are more easily demoralized by pronunciation difficulties. In addition, the Critical Period Hypothesis states that younger learners have certain advantages over older learners in language learning that allows them to learn L2 easily and quickly in comparison to older children. When the critical period is over, it is nearly impossible to reach native-like proficiency in one's second language and even those who learn a language fluently are probably recognized as having an accent. Although they can achieve expertise in a written language, they face problems in spoken language. Hence, age can also be regarded as an influential factor determining the quality of second language learning. Changed:

Individual Factors
Main article: Individual variation in second-language acquisition.

(removed introduction as it seems confusing/irrelevant)

Affective Factors (NEW subsection)
(unedited) The learner's emotional state or affect can interfere with acquiring a new language because acquiring a new language inevitably involves practicing it in public and conversing with others. All these encompassed the possibility of making mistakes, resulting in embarrassment, and such anxiety can block the ability to receive and process new information. Thus, high self-consciousness and a reluctance to reveal their weaknesses and faults, coupled with feelings of vulnerability could greatly impede second language learning. Fear of embarrassment has been found to occur more in adults than children because adults are more self-conscious about speaking, making errors and are more easily demoralized by pronunciation difficulties.  (rest of paragraph deleted) 

Age of Onset (NEW subsection)
Main article: Critical period hypothesis.

Linguists generally agree that age of onset has an effect on L2 proficiency and performance, as children who are exposed to a second language earlier tend to fare better on performance tests later in life. Additionally, the notion of the Critical Period Hypothesis in the context of language acquisition suggests that there is a sensitive time period in early childhood during which L2 can be learned easily and quickly. While it may vary in individual children, this window of opportunity is considered to be between the ages of 2 and puberty.

However, there is contention on whether the critical period for language truly exists. Although there is generally a negative correlation between age of acquisition and L2 proficiency, studies which do not find a period of "onset" or "sharp decline" in sensitivity for language acquisition suggest that the critical period is poorly defined. Speakers who are exposed to L2 after puberty or in early adulthood are still capable of reaching nativelike fluency, showing a pattern of learning that is inconsistent with Lenneberg's original model.

Pedagogical Factors subsection(under "factors") - Xuan
Second language acquisition can be attained in both naturalistic settings and classroom settings. Compared to naturalistic settings, classroom settings enable second language learners to focus on linguistic forms and metalinguistic knowledge. At present, for bilinguals, second language acquisition happens mostly in classroom settings.

Does formal instruction aid the rate and path of SLA?
Based on our own language learning experience, we intuitively believe that formal instruction helps bilinguals develop higher level of language literacy and proficiency. However, various studies, including cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, prove that formal instruction makes no difference to the path of SLA and rules of language are acquired in a predictable order. The order of formal instruction on morphemes is not correlated with the natural order of acquisition. It is pointed out by longitudinal studies that the deviation away from natural order is temporary. And informal instruction shows its interference only in test-like situations, but not in communicative contexts.

The impact of formal instruction on rate of SLA is controversial. Though learners adopting formal instruction have better performance on discrete-point tests, no evidence backs the absolute positive effect of formal instruction. The methodological problem confronted by the studies supporting informal instruction is to determine whether the instruction itself (grammar teaching) or more contact brought by classroom settings leads to learning acceleration. For this, Krashen proposes that "learned" knowledge obtained through explicit learning is distinct from "acquired" knowledge gained through implicit learning, and knowledge gained by one route cannot be converted into the other type of knowledge. Formal instruction only increases learners’ learned knowledge, but makes no contribution to acquisition. However, teachers’ input and interaction, which indirectly offers comprehensible input, is of real value. The interaction in the classroom settings also facilitates acquisition by exposing students to language in a communicative context.

How does formal instruction affect SLA?
Based on the argument above, we know that the efficiency of second language acquisition is based on whether the classroom is an acquisition-rich or acquisition-poor environment. Newmark (cited in Ellis, 1994) pointed out that instructors of foreign language classes should stop interfering with the learning process and propose that classroom instruction would be successful if the environment is naturalistic. However, classroom settings and naturalistic settings inevitably differ in the following aspects, which may or may not be helpful for second language acquisition.

Input
The classroom environment offers input that is adjusted to learners’ needs. Instructors can decrease their speaking rate and simplify their word use and sentence structures. According to the input hypothesis by Krashen, one can acquire a second language efficiently with comprehensible input, which suggests that input brought by formal instruction may directly or indirectly contribute to SLA.

Interaction
Technically, interactional modification helps boost second language acquisition by making input more comprehensible. According to Interaction Hypothesis, interaction facilitates meaning negotiation via clarification, confirmation, repetition and comprehension checks, etc. Interactions between teachers and students would also bridge support, which weakens learners’ affective filter and may result in better learning.

Teachers' questions
Teachers' questions push learners to interact and simulate real communication in an artificial context. Feedback from students’ performance enables instructors to control the progress and adjust following instructions. In addition, referential questions, compared to display questions, provide students with more opportunities to produce extensive output and boost their acquisition.

Topic control
Based on empirical teaching and learning experience, topics chosen by learners rather than teachers would motivate learners better and further spark extensive production. Secondly, topic selection ensures that the complexity of the input is under control and is adapted to learners’ language competence.

Implications for classroom teaching
As Corder (1976, cited in Ellis, 1992 ) proposed, “Efficient foreign language teaching must work with rather than against natural process, facilitate rather than impede learning. Teachers and teaching materials must adapt to the learner rather than vice-versa.”

Ellis proposes several general suggestions to offer an acquisition-rich communicative environment.


 * Teachers’ talk needs to be simplified to generate more comprehensible input for learners.


 * Interactions are encouraged. During this process, learners gain opportunities to construct and observe their discourse.
 * Learners are encouraged to output extensive responses.
 * Learners can choose their topics.
 * Second language use is not restricted to classroom settings.