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Decoding the Berberisca dress. Marc Jacobs, a famous fashion designer, once said “… clothing is a form of self-expression. There are hints about who you are in what you wear”. This quote perfectly describes the meaning behind the Berberisca Dress. This dress, also known as El Traje de paño, La grand Robe, or Keswa-El-Kbira (grand costume), was worn by the Sephardic Jewish bride on the night that preceded her wedding. The father of the bride would gift a glamourous yet meaningful dress, a treasure that was to be worn for the most special occasions. According to Jewish tradition, the wedding starts one week before the marriage ceremony and the night before the wedding day is called La Noche de Paño or Noche de Berberisca. A few centuries ago, the custom was for family and friends to accompany the bride in song towards the house of the groom. The bride would be dressed in her Berberisca gown and was led by tambourines, Piyutim (religious songs), “bargualá” and candles. At the entrance of the house, the future mother in law would wait for her with water and sugar to wish the bride a pure and sweet life alongside her son. She was then seated at the “Talamon,” a special tent on four poles with a bridal chair that was surrounded by Torah scrolls. The guests would then offer their warm wishes and blessings for the upcoming new stage of life. That night, the bride was to sleep in the groom’s house with her mother-in-law until the next day when the ceremony of the wedding took place. After that, the bride and groom would officially start their new life as husband and wife. The author Alegria Bendelac compiled many testimonies on the night of Berberisca. The descriptions of the events vary and are primarily based on the year, the city (Tanger vs. Tetuan), and its customs. Nowadays, however, the ceremony has changed, and the Noche of Berberisca is more of a social party. The bride wears the dress of Berberisca, which is usually in the family for various generations, and family and friends join in for a beautiful celebration. Interestingly, the Berberisca dress is one of the only items that was indeed carried on from the original ceremony and passed down from generation to generation. It makes one wonder about the meaning behind this momentous dress. Is the Berberisca dress a mere imitation of the typical Ancient Spanish garment, or it is a testimonial from the past? Is it a valuable souvenir, or a contributing milestone to global history? Do the detailed ornaments are there for beauty or to demonstrate the resilience of the Jewish nation and their identity? On a different note, is the extensive focus on the Jewish bride (through this meaningful dress) an indication of a deep connection between the Jewish woman and the history of the Hebraic Nation? To answer these questions, one has to analyze the history of these peoples, the way they dressed, their evolution, and their symbolism. In 1492, after almost ten centuries of Convivencia, the Catholic Kings expelled the Jews of Spain (Sephardim) from Iberian soil. Jews were forced to look for a new place to live, which led many of them to cross the straits of Gibraltar and try to build a new life under the rules of the Sultan of Morocco. In North Africa, the expelled Jews found Jewish tribes but quickly found that their language and culture were different from their Spanish customs. Despite the increase in the population by the arrival of the Megorashim to Morocco, they were unable to integrate into the existing community fully. Instead, the Megorashim formed an independent group and decided to keep their own identity, which was the only thing the Catholic kings could not confiscate from them. They formed their communities based on their previous settlement in Spain. The Sephardic Jews kept their language, their style of dress, and social rules. They used a special language, called Haketia, as a code of identity and uniqueness. The Community dressed peculiarly and the garments used by newcomers had deep roots in Hispanic traditions. The communal laws brought from Spain led the community and were based on the Takanot of Castilla. Many of these laws were specifically created to protect Jewish women. For example, the Ketubah of Castilla included the right for a woman to inherit her husband’s belongings in the case of death. The law allowed the dividing the inheritance in half- part for the children and part for the widow. For centuries it was infrequent to have intermarriage with the “Forasteros”. These precedents, along with other customs, ensured the uniqueness of this community even after the dissolution of the Sephardic communities of Northern Morocco. Interestingly, however, out of all the traditions listed above, the Berberisca dress stands out due to its active role in today’s wedding ceremonies in Sephardic communities. Therefore, the significance and the symbolism of this valuable relic represents the past, present, and future of the Spanish Sephardic tradition. The “Traje de paño” evokes the Spanish Isabelline dress style and has its roots in the fifteenth century. The elements of this festive dress are similar to the regular dresses that people wore daily. The most significant differences between the basic daily dress and the Berberisca dress lies in the material, the golden thread embroidery, the particular shoes, and the jewelry. The earliest references on the Megorashim’s attire can be found in the “Cancionero” and the regional costumes. “The Cancionero” were the ballads and songs about daily life that were transmitted by oral tradition from generation to generation. An additional resource for the attire were the first photographs (end of the 19th century) that depicted the entrance of the Spanish troops in Tetuan under the orders of General O’Donnell. In these photographs, one can find pictures of the Berberisca dress and the peculiar Jewish manner of dress in North Africa at the end of 19 century. The strong Sephardic tradition that the Megorashim kept for centuries started to fade out with the presence of the Spanish troops in Morocco. The beginning of the scholar institution “Alliance Israelite Universal” (AIU) during the 19th century also contributed to the loss of tradition. The A.I.U introduced the French language as the elite language and depreciated Haketia by attributing it to the old and illiterate people. A new trend appeared at the Spanish Protectorate, and the dress code with the memoirs of the Renaissance gave space to the modern European style. Only the loyalty to traditions, such as continuing to celebrate the Berberisca night before the nuptial ceremony, kept the Sephardic custom alive. The Berberisca dress is related to marriage, to the Jewish wedding ritual. The details of the dress are similar to the embroidery of the Spanish royal court in the Middle Age. The material used for the Berberisca dress was a luxurious dark velvet, with thick embroidery, and sleeves that resembled various traditional Iberian costumes: “Some authors have commented on its similarity with the traditional clothing worn by the women of Spain, Salamanca province. One can observe similarities between the Berberisca dress and the traje de charro or traje de vistas of the village of La Alberca, and the skirt recalls the Manteo worn in most of the southern areas of Spain’s northern sub-plateau. The embroidered geometrical motifs persist in our tradition […]. Even the velvet fabric is evidence of a richness indebted to the Spanish garments worn by nobility at the dawn of the Renaissance.” In her work “Nuestras bodas sefaraditas,” Sarah Leibocici explains the meaning behind the dress’ velvet material and golden threads. According to Leibocici, the Berberisca dress makes allusion to some of the Spanish provinces from which the Sephardim originated. The dress’ features resemble the Andalusian dress worn in Huelva. The citizens of Andevalo and Puebla de Guzman used to wear similar jackets, sleeves, and skirts during their pilgrimages known as “Romerias.” In addition, the velvet and the braided gold embroidery were widely present in their garments too. As aforementioned, the different parts of the attire were similar to the day to day apparel used by the Jewish Sephardic woman. The skirt called Giraldeta was the ordinary skirt worn every day. It was made from less expensive and less delicate materials. The Casso, or vest and the shoes were also simpler and cheaper versions when compared to the accessories worn in the “Noche de paño.” The head covering was part of the religious tradition that a married woman should conceal her hair from the public and preserve it for her husband. Even though some authors reported that the Berberisca dress was the actual wedding dress, it is important to clarify is that since the end of the nineteenth century, the Berberisca dress was the gown worn at the celebration that preceded the wedding. Typically, the woman wore a white dress for the marriage ceremony on her nuptial day. It is interesting to note the resemblance between the Berberisca dress and the cloth that covers the Torah scrolls in a synagogue. Indeed, the black velvet and embroidery of both articles are remarkably similar. The geographical location of the city the Jews lived in greatly influenced the style of the Berberisca Dress. The cities close to the southern provinces had more influences from the Berber and Arabic culture. Also, the color may vary: The dresses made in red velvet or burgundy were characteristic of the coastal cities. The interim cities had more tendency to use green and blue velvets. The city of Tetuan, which considered one of the most authentic places, used purple and black velvet. The Berberisca dress consists eight pieces:1) Skirt, 2) Torso piece 3) Short jacket or vest 4) Pair of sheers long and wide sleeves separated from the jacket, 5) Silk belt, 6) Silk scarf, 7) Shoes, 8) Headband. A detailed description of these pieces will follow (fig.p.14): 1.	The skirt- Zeltita or Giraldeta: A voluminous wrap skirt. The Giraldeta originated in Spain; there are references about the Giraldeta from multiple authors and other testimonies: “la Giraldeta es una falda semejante al mantelo de nuestras Provincias del Noroeste abierta por delante’ pero de tal corte’ que estando puesta se cubre perfectamente la orilla interior y no forma la menor arruga. La chiraldeta- falda abierta por delante. Estaba ajada, y el único lujo de la hebrea lo constituía el pañuelo de Seda multicolor con el que se cubría la cabeza”. Galicia, Asturias, Palencia, Burgos, Zamora, Leon, y Salamanca are cities that have examples from this full skirt. The width of the skirt allows as much movement as possible without having to pick up the dress and show the bride’s legs to those who surround her. The Giraldeta is made of a heavy material which does not allow free movement. Therefore, the width is truly necessary. The costly velvet skirt and the embroidery of authentic golden threads symbolize the Torah scroll, which is the most valuable article in the Jewish faith. The women represent in Judaism the origin of life; indeed, women are perceived as givers. They provide life, fulfill her dependents’ basic needs, and offers them an education. She is in charge of teaching her springs about the divine laws until they go to a house of study. In other words, the bride gets ready to transform herself into a carrier of the Law. Therefore, it is not a coincidence that before her wedding, she is dressed in a garment that alludes the Torah scrolls. Her attire conveys a message as to her new role in life. The concentric lines that are embroidered from the hem to the top of the skirt, metaphorically represent fertility, as it mimics the shape of a prenatal belly that augments throughout the nine months. In some instances, one can count twenty-two curved lines which represent the twenty-two letters of the Hebrew alphabet that were used to write the Torah. In other instances, a skirt may have twenty-six curved lines- an essential numerical value in Jewish tradition- the numerical value of God’s name. On the side of the skirt, one can note the design of a palm tree or a Hamsa (hand of five open fingers). The symbolism of five is a crucial amulet in Jewish life; it is the protection from the Ayin Hara or the evil eye, which was strongly believed-in in Morocco. Witnesses from the Moroccan culture reported that due to the high mortality rate, especially in infants, people believed in the evil eye and other superstitions. These beliefs led residents to find ways to bring positive energy around them. Therefore, a popular custom was to provide the bride with a dress worn by a woman who did not suffer from this loss. The latter was meant to transmit blessings and good luck to the new wife and mother to be. The tree in the dress represents the tree of life as an essential emblem to the young bride. This tree was a message that now, the bride is becoming part of this tree, which has deep roots, and long branches that bring out new fruit (aka children). Like the tree, the bride gets her strength from her roots, her ascendants, and historical background. 2.	The Ktef, called Punta or Peto, is a bodice. It is placed beneath the jacket and is made out of the same color and fabric as the skirt and jacket. In most cases, the bodice is only a front piece held by ribbons tightly tied in the back. This Punta is also traditional in some farms in Asturias and Cantabria. In Morocco, however, this garment is called Peto. This piece was a simple piece used to support the breast, and it was effortlessly removable for nursing women. As Dr. Ovilo stated at the end of the XIX century, residents used this piece made from simple materials for daily use. In the Peto, however, one can find a variety of motifs meticulously embroidered- from geometrical shapes to florals motifs. The circular shape of the sun is one of the most prevalent motifs as the spiral on the circles hints the cycle of life. Indeed, the spiral represents the endless continuation and eternal spiritual life. The flowers, especially the rose, refer to numerous verses in the holy scriptures; for example, the Song of Songs, “A rose among thorns” (II,2). At times, one can also find a repetitive motif. The embroidery of a palm tree that is allusive to the Etz Chaim (tree of life). The tree of life appears in the Holy Scriptures when the paradisiac garden is discussed. This tree is the cause of ambiguity and argument; it is a tree that provides wisdom but also death. Therefore, the message to the young bride is the importance of following God’s commands. Indeed, in order to achieve wisdom rather than devastating loss, the holy-scripture teaches that one should follow the directions given by the Creator. By doing so, the person will ultimately make the right choices and live a life of wisdom and success. 3.	A jacket with short sleeves called Gombaz or Caso is the third element of the Berberisca dress. According to Dr. Ovilo, the Caso is a short and tailored jacket that is closed at the waist to allow the details of the Punta to show through. The etiology of the word Casó is not well known. Scholars relate this element to another piece used in the late medieval period, a garment called Cos or Coses. This garment was a type of vest. In some instances, the vest was more jacket like and included sleeves called Coselete. The Caso or Gombbaz gave distinction and elegance to the woman. One of the most common embroidered motifs is the solar wheel. This wheel can also be found on Jewish graves and burial clothes in Morocco, which symbolizes the balance between life and death. Others ornaments such as the moon and the labyrinth's shell are related to fertility, feminine energy, and natural cycles. 4.	A pair of long and broad sleeves known as Kmam is the next element in the Berberisca dress. Researches did not find these sleeves in the traditional outfits of Spain. A similar type of sleeves was found in medieval times and the Golden Age; however, the sleeves were sewn together with the bodice of a shirt. This shirt, found by researchers, was a long shirt used for both, men and women of that era, and its function was to cover their skin and serve as underwear. This long shirt, known as Camisola, was mainly used at night as a nightgown. The sleeves of the Camisola were made from a rough material while the sleeves of the Berberisca dress were crafted with a delicate and sheer fabric that was beautifully decorated and embroidered. 5.	 The next part of this dress is a silk belt called H’zem. This long belt resembles the belt used to attach the Giraldeta (Kusaka). It is possible that this element has its origins in the Muslim culture. Indeed, the location where the belt is weaved on the Berberisca dress is the same as in caftans and jellabiyas of the Muslim population. The extremes of the H’zem have fringes, and it is long enough to wrap it around the bride’s wait multiple times. The functionality of the H’zem was to make the bride’s waist look as small as possible. In Jewish tradition, a belt symbolizes the separation between the material and the spiritual. This concept is widely accepted by many Hassidic groups and widely used during praying times. The bride is, therefore taught to remember that although life is in the materialistic world, one should never forget spiritual growth. 6.	Fetchul or panwelo is a headpiece used to cover the bride’s hair. Despite the commandment, Jewish women have to cover their hair after marriage, covering one’s head was a widespread concept in the Golden age for non-Jewish women as well. It was a symbol of respect and high class. Therefore, one of the primary components of the Berberisca dress was this scarf that the woman used to cover her head. It was the custom to add a second scarf under the Fetchul called the Jayati to avoid the sliding of the Fetchul off the bride’s hair. 7.	The Jemar is an elegant Tiara commonly used for ceremonies and significant events. This diadem was very expensive. The Jemar was made with precious stones and with Ajofar (pearls in Hakitía). There were only a few families that could afford to own the Jemar; therefore, whoever owned it, lent it to others too. The owner of the Jemar would bring the tiara to the borrowing bride and would stay by her side due to its high value. According to the tradition, the Jemar had 613 pearls that allude the 613 precepts of the Torah. 8.	The traditional shoes are called Rihiyat el’kbar or Muquwara. These shoes were an inspiration of the Muslim countries and their dressing style- the babouches: the fabric, color, and embroidery of the babuchas coordinated with the Berberisca dress. However, when Spain conquered Morocco, at the end of the 19th century, European fashion took over North Morocco. Therefore, the Jewish community started to use European shoes; which were referred to as ¨los Zapatos ingleses¨. From the beginning of the 20th century, it was very common to see elegant Berberisca dresses worn with elegant shoes of European style. In addition to its gorgeous components, history, and significance of the Berberisca dress, it is important to understand the process of the ritual and its symbolism in order to understand why it was possible to keep this tradition alive for so many years. The ritual involves the families of the bride and groom, friends, and distinguished personalities of the Jewish community. The bride does not dress; instead, she is dressed by significant others. Historically, women who dedicated their lives to the community (i.e., midwives and Chevra Kadisha women had the honor to dress her. During this ceremonial dressing, the women sing songs, and through laughter, they explain to the young bride the secrets involved in a successful marital relationship. It is not a coincidence that those women were the ones in charge of the transmission, as they were the ones who helped bring babies to this world and the ones who helped women find their final peace. In addition, the men who were members of the Hebra Kadisha were in charge to take the bride to her new home. The entire ceremony had one purpose only- the transmission of values. The word transmission can be split into two syllables: trans- mission- to transfer the mission from generation to generation.            During the ceremony of Berberisca, the father holds the head of the bride from her neck but allows her to walk ahead on her own without pushing her. This seemingly bizarre escort also encompasses a deep message for the young bride. The father stays in the back, but supporting the bride, holding her head, and giving her the message that although she is now on her own on a new journey, she will never be alone. Her parents will always be right behind her to support her and be there for her. After having analyzed and read much of the literature referring to the Berberisca dress, I have noticed that its evolution, symbolism, and traditions are still unknowns to many practicing families. Therefore, the question remains as to why does the average family continue to wear this dress, and what is the message they convey through this ceremony? Indeed, despite the beautiful meanings discussed in this paper, it is rare for the modern family to be aware of the profound significance of the embroideries. It is important to note that in older generations, the brides were very young, and the intellectual knowledge among women was not comparable to the knowledge acquired by women in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Thus, why is the Berberisca’s ceremony one of the most significant rituals in the Sephardic heritage despite the fading of most communities of Northern Morocco and their assimilation to other communities of the Diaspora? Thinking about the meaning of the Berberisca night for women in previous generations is too difficult due to the large gap between then and today. It is possible, however, to better relate to the feeling that women in the XXth and XXIst century experienced. King David wrote a beautiful verse in his book “the Psalms,” which depicts the idea behind the Berberisca night:  " היינו כחולמים" “We see it as in a dream” (Psalm126). A dream, especially when the dreamer experiences it, feels very real. There is, however, an odd possibility that can never be achieved in real life. In a dream, there is no time limit- one can experience the XXIst and the VIth century simultaneously or confuse the morning and night. One can experience the past, present, and future in the same dream without feeling strange. The meaning of the Berberisca Dress represents that idea. It is the bridge between the times; it represents it all… Indeed, some families might feel the living memory of their past, while others feel the pride to be part of the Sephardic Jewry where they flourished. Some may see the Berberisca Dress as a transmission of values, while others approach the Berberisca dress as a code of Jewish femininity. This dream is what has kept the tradition alive, and is what will lead the community in the future. In a fast-paced generation, where we do not have time for dreams, the Berberisca dress represents the dream, the bridge between the past, present, and future. As Isaac Newton wisely said: “We build too many walls and not enough bridges.” People tend to exclude their past and build walls as they are ashamed of primitivity. Innovation is always more important in the millennial’s eyes. It is important to remember, however, that when bridges are built to connect your past to your present, then your future is guaranteed to be a success. When one knows where one comes from, it is a lot easier to plan where one will go.