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The Middle Passage

The Middle Passage was the stage of the Atlantic slave trade in which millions of enslaved Africans[1] were forcibly transported to the Americas as part of the triangular slave trade.

Falola, et al. Encyclopedia of the Middle Passage. Greenwood Press, 2007.

ISBN : 9780313088292 ISBN : 0313088292

Quote: From the fifteenth through the nineteenth centuries, Europe’s imperial powers transported between 9 and 15 million Africans to the Americas. This process, known as the trans-Atlantic slave trade, formed part of the larger process of European expansion during the same period.

MLA 8th Edition (Modern Language Assoc.) Warnock, Amanda, and Toyin Falola. Encyclopedia of the Middle Passage. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007.

Annotated Bibliography #1:

Gunn, Jeffrey. “Creating a Paradox: Quobna Ottobah Cugoano and the Slave Trade's Violation of the Principles of Christianity, Reason, and Property Ownership.” Journal of World History, vol. 21, no. 4, University of Hawaii Press, 2010, pp. 629–56.

Fact from actual source; In his groundbreaking narrative Thoughts and Sentiments (1787), Ottobah Cugoano expressed the paradox created by the slave trade that threatened to undermine the social fabric of European slaveholding societies. The commercial procedures involved in the slave trade violated the principles of Christianity, reason, and property owner ship, while generating profits for European businesses and governments. The author argues that Cugoano's case for ending the slave trade and abolishing slavery depended on his ability to analyze the slave trade from the vantage points of Christianity, reason, and property ownership in order to counter apologist arguments that supported the slave trade by denying the humanity of Africans. Cugoano forced his European readership into a paradoxical predicament. They could either end the slave trade and actualize their religious, philosophical, and economic principles, or they could allow the slave trade to continue to undermine those principles, thus rendering European societies hypocritical.

Summary; This scholarly source offers readers more information on Ottobah Cugoano, who was brought up in the article concerning the Middle Passage on Wikipedia. Cugoano wrote a book over how procedures during the slave trade violated principles of Christianity and property ownership only to generate profits for Europeans. Cugoano wanted Europeans to stand by their own religious, philosophical, and economic principles instead of undermining those principles by continuing the Atlantic Slave Trade. This offers diverse perspectives on religion and the economy.

Quote from Article:

Ottobah Cugoano, who was taken from Africa as a slave when he was a child, later described an uprising aboard the ship on which he was transported to the West Indies:"When we found ourselves at last taken away, death was more preferable than life, and a plan was concerted amongst us, that we might burn and blow up the ship, and to perish all together in the flames."New Fact from Morgan Sparks: Ottobah Cugoana wrote many books concerning The Middle passage and shed a light on how Christian principles and property ownership rules were violated just to increase profits for the europeans.

New Section to insert in my Wikipedia Article: Ottobah Cugoano, who was taken from Africa as a slave when he was a child, later described an uprising aboard the ship on which he was transported to the West Indies: When we found ourselves at last taken away, death was more preferable than life, and a plan was concerted amongst us, that we might burn and blow up the ship, and to perish all together in the flames. Ottobah Cugoana wrote many books concerning The Middle passage and shed a light on how Christian principles and property ownership rules were violated just to increase profits for the europeans.

Annotated Bibliography #2;

McEvoy, Frederick D. “Understanding Ethnic Realities Among the Grebo and Kru Peoples of West Africa.” Africa (London. 1928), vol. 47, no. 1, Cambridge University Press, 1977, pp. 62–80, doi:10.2307/1159195.

Fact from actual source: This paper deals with certain implications of our ‘conventional understandings’ of the Kru and Grebo people of the Cape Palmas region of coastal West Africa. These ‘traditional’ scholarly understandings of ‘traditional’ political organization, when combined with misfocused questions about the nature of ethnicity, effectively preclude accurate knowledge not only of traditional polities but also of how a people's ethnic identity may be redefined with changing circumstances. Subjecting traditional perspectives as well as ethnographic data to re-examination may clarify the complex role of ethnicity among the Kru and Grebo.

Summary: This scholarly source offers readers information concerning the Kru people, who were also mentioned in the Middle Passage on Wikipedia. This article goes over how sources on the Kru people can be confused with other ethnicities. The authors of this source wanted to research other subjective data concerning traditional perspectives on the Kru people and add ethnographic data to re-examine information concerning the Kru people. This source helps to clarify the complex role of the Kru people. This offers diverse perspectives on ethnicity.

Quote from Article: Over the centuries, some African peoples, such as the Kru, came to be understood as holding substandard value as slaves, because they developed a reputation for being too proud for slavery, and for attempting suicide immediately upon losing their freedom.

New Fact from Morgan Sparks: However, the Europeans looked at Kru people and other Africans as all the same.

New Section to insert in my Wikipedia Article: Over the centuries, some African peoples, such as the Kru, came to be understood as holding substandard value as slaves, because they developed a reputation for being too proud for slavery, and for attempting suicide immediately upon losing their freedom.However, the Europeans looked at Kru people and other Africans as all the same.