User:Michaelramirez/sandbox

MATERIAL ADDED TO WIKIPEDIA

Gender pay gap in the United States (fatherhood premium)

Research has also shown there to be a "marriage premium" for men with labor economists and sociologists frequently reporting that married men earn higher wages than unmarried men, and speculating that this may be attributable to one or more of the following causes: (1) more productive men marry at greater rates (attributing the marriage premium to selection bias), (2) men become more productive following marriage (possibly due to labor market specialization by men and domestic specialization by women), (3) employers favor married men, or (4) married men feel a responsibility ethic to maximize income. Lincoln (2008) found no support for the specialization hypothesis among full-time employed workers. One study found that among identical twins with one married and the other single, average wage increased 26%. Some studies have suggested this premium is pronounced in the working lives of men after becoming fathers. ''The "fatherhood premium" is the increase in pay specifically after men becoming fathers. Fathers can expect their salaries to be boosted by 4 to 7% beyond that of their childless male counterparts. [Hodges and Budig; Lundberg and Rose 2002 CITATION HERE] The fatherhood premium varies by race, as white father receive larger dividends than do fathers of color (Glauber 2008 CITATION HERE).''

Some research has found pay increases are greater for men with children while other work has shown fatherhood to have no effect on wages one way or the other. ''Boosts to fathers' salaries and decreases in mothers' are the result of two intersecting factors. First, parenthood allows and/or prompts men to invest more time in work, while women are prompted to invest less. Second, employers' beliefs of the productivity and worth of employees are influenced by gender, as fathers are seen as more productive, while mothers are viewed as less committed to work and thus less valuable. [Coltrane 2004; Lundberg and Rose 2000; Wade and Ferree CITATION HERE].''

Hodges and Budig https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0891243210386729

Lundberg and Rose https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0927537100000208

Glauber 2008 https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0891243207311593

Coltrane 2004

https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0002716204268776

FULL DRAFT OF MATERIAL FOR WIKIPEDIA

Some studies have suggested this premium is greater for men with children while others have shown fatherhood to have no effect on wages one way or the other. Boosts to fathers' salaries and decreases in mothers' are the result of two intersecting factors. First, parenthood allows and/or prompts men to invest more time in work, while women are prompted to invest less. Second, employers' beliefs of the productivity and worth of employees are influenced by gender, as fathers are seen as more productive, while mothers are viewed as less committed to work and thus less valuable.

Wiki Glass Escalator

Black men do not have the same experience, nor the advantages, of the men in Williams' original work. Winfield concludes that a shared racial identity with one's coworkers facilitates access to the glass escalator. Black men, some of whom are tokens in the field of nursing, do not share the racial identity of many of their female (and dominantly white) colleagues. White women tend not to value working with nurses of color, particularly when they are men. As a result, they do not assist in enhancing their black male colleagues' careers in nursing.

Wiki Masculinity

[Notes to reviewer: 1. A dash before a fragment refers to an idea I am developing. 2. Text that is struckthrough is material I will remove from the entry. 3. Italicized text are those portions that I am writing and will add to the entry.]

Edit Overview

--delete machismo - racially specific?

-substitute with hypermasculinity?

Masculinity (manhood or manliness) is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles associated with boys and men. As a social construct, it is distinct from the definition of the male biological sex. Standards of manliness or masculinity vary across different cultures and historical periods. Both males and females can exhibit masculine traits and behavior.

Traits traditionally viewed as masculine in Western society include courage, independence, violence, and assertiveness. An overemphasis on masculinity and power, often associated with a disregard for consequences and responsibility, is known as machismo.

Additions to Nature versus Nurture.

-social scientists believe a more useful treatment is nature AND nature.

-both intersect to influence gender identity and masculinity

How a child develops gender identity is also debated. Some believe that masculinity is linked to the male body; in this view, masculinity is associated with male genitalia.[22] Others have suggested that although masculinity may be influenced by biology, it is also a cultural construct. Recent research has been done on one's self concept of masculinity and its relation to testosterone; the results have shown that masculinity not only differs in different cultures, but the levels of testosterone do not predict how masculine or feminine one feels.[23]Proponents of this view argue that women can become men hormonally and physically,[22] and many aspects of masculinity assumed to be natural are linguistically and culturally driven.[24] On the nurture side of the debate, it is argued that masculinity does not have a single source. Although the military has a vested interest in constructing and promoting a specific form of masculinity, it does not create it.[25] Facial hair is linked to masculinity through language, in stories about boys becoming men when they begin to shave.[26]

''Contemporary social scientists suggest masculinity to stem from both nature and nurture, as both biological predispositions and social factors intersect to give rise to masculinities. Scholars suggest that innate differences between the sexes are compounded and/or exaggerated by the influences of social factors. (Fausto-Sterling, Anne. 2014. "Where Does Gender Come From?" Footnote, December 18, 2014. http://footnote.co/where-does-gender-come-from/)''

Gender as a Performance or Social Construction of Masculinities (new header?) (after Nature v Nurture section?)

-“Doing gender” – not who one is, but what one does - not just one's internalized sense of who one is, but is instead what one does and does recurrently [reword]

''Social scientists conceptualize masculinity (and femininity) as a performance (CITATION Butler; Connell; West and Zimmerman). Gender performances may not necessarily be intentional and people may not even be aware of the extent to which they are performing gender, as one outcome of lifelong gender socialization is the feeling that one's gender is "natural" or biologically-ordained.''

''The social construction of gender also conceptualizes gender as a continuum (CITATION needed). Theorists suggest one is not simply masculine or feminine, but instead may display components of both masculinity and femininity to different degrees and in particular contexts.''

''Masculine performance varies over the life course, but also from one context to another. For instance, the sports world may elicit more traditionally normative masculinities in participants than would other settings (CITATION Messner). Men who exhibit a tough and aggressive masculinity on the sports field may display a softer masculinity in familial contexts. Masculinities vary by social class as well. Some studies suggest working class constructions of masculinity to be more normative than are those from middle class men and boys. As these contexts and comparisons illustrate, theorists suggest a multiplicity of masculinities, not simply one single construction of masculinity (CITATION Connell?).''

Additions needed in Hegemonic Masculinity section

-gender is about power

-heg masc is a mythical ideal – few men attain it and this makes it much more powerful

-heg masc is the most valued construction of masculinity in a given culture

-varies by culture and over time

-add discussion “subordinated masculinities”

-article needs Gender and Power citation

Additions to Present Day

''Overwhelmingly, the construction of masculinity most valued in the latter part of the twentieth century to today is one that is independent, assertive, sexually assertive, athletic, among other normative markers of manhood. Social theorist Erving Goffman’s seminal work on stigma management presents a list of traits prescribed as categorically masculine for contemporary men:''

"In an important sense there is only one complete unblushing male in America: a young, married, white, urban, northern, heterosexual Protestant father of college education, fully employed, or good complexion, weight and height, and a recent record in sports.”

(Goffman 1963: 128)

Though his list may be partly in jest, broader culture values these and other related characteristics.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, a traditional family consisted of the father as breadwinner and the mother as homemaker. ''Despite women’s increasing participation in the paid labor force and contributions to family income, men’s identities remained centered on their working lives and specifically their economic contributions. Central to adult men’s identities is the provider role, as masculinity is often measured by the size of one’s paycheck/economic contribution to the family. Masculinity is also secured by denying any semblance of softness, emotion, femininity, or any characteristic associated with women and femininity.''

There is some evidence of masculinities undergoing shifts in the contemporary social landscape. Characteristic of present-day masculinity is men's willingness to counter stereotypes. Regardless of age or nationality, some men more frequently rank good health, a harmonious family life and a good relationship with their spouse or partner as important to their quality of life.[58]


 * 1) Jump up^