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Standpoint Theory

Theory
Standpoint theory is a postmodern method for analyzing inter-subjective discourses. According to Communication Theory, standpoint theory is mainly about an authority which is generated by people's knowledge and the power to shape people's opinions in daily life. Standpoint theory's most important concept is that individual's own perspectives are shaped by his or her experiences in social locations and social groups. Standpoints are always involved in more than one part. For example, if there are two Hispanic women in a group, and their standpoints may be similar in terms of race and sex categories; however, if thier economic status is different, their starndpoints are not completely the same. These perspectives are the core point of view for individuals to see the world. Especially, standpoint theory focuses on gender perspectives, to see how feminine viewpoints shape women's communication with themselves, others, and the world.

History
Standpoint Theory was more theory based in the beginning, but now communication scholars, especially Nancy Hartsock, are focusing on looking at communication behaviors. Standpoint theory began when Georget Whilhelm Friedrich Hegel, a German philosopher, studied the different standpoints between slaves and masters in 1807. Also, Karl Marx discussed that the position of a work shapes his or her knowledge. From these two scholars' studies, Nancy Hartsock examined Standpoint Theory by using relations between men and women. From this view, Nancy Hartsock published "The Feminist Standpoint: Developing Ground for a Specifically Feminist Historical Materialism." The theory was similar to a combination of Marxist theory and feminism. Then, Hartsock put Hegel's ideas of masters and slaves and Marx's ideas of class and capitalism into issues of sex and gender. She refers to sex as a biological category and gender as a behavioral category. Therefore, Nancy called this theory "Feminist Standpoint Theory" in 1983. The focus of this theory is women's social positions, such as race, class, culture, and economic status. "Developed primarily by social scientists, especially sociologists & political theorists; it extends some of the early insights about consciousness that emerged from Marxist/socialist feminist theories and the wider conversations about identity politics. Standpoint Theory endeavors to develop a feminist epistemology, or theory of knowledge, that delineates a method for constructing effective knowledge from the insights of women's experience." The theory arose amongst feminist theorists, such as Dorothy Smith, Nancy Hartsock, Donna Haraway, Sandra Harding, Alison Wylie, and Patricia Hill Collins.

According to this approach:
 * A standpoint is a place from which human beings view the world.
 * A standpoint influences how the people adopting it socially construct the world.
 * Social group membership affects people's standpoints.
 * The inequalities of different social groups create differences in their standpoints.
 * All standpoints are partial; so (for example) Standpoint feminism coexists with other standpoints.

Standpoint Theory supports what Harding calls strong objectivity, or the notion that the perspectives of marginalized and/or oppressed individuals can help to create more objective accounts of the world. The predominant culture in which all groups exist is not experienced in the same way by all persons or groups. The views of those who belong to groups with more social power are validated more than those in marginalized groups. Those in marginalized groups must learn to be bicultural, or to "pass" in the dominant culture to survive, even though that perspective is not their own.

Assumptions
Although Standpoint theories realize that this theory has a limited source of proof, they emphasize that the main characteristics of Standpoint Theory is a feminist theory, as well as the nature of life, which are defined as:
 * 1) The main focus is sex or gender.
 * 2) The view of sex or gender relations is uncertain.
 * 3) The view of sex or gender relations is variable.

Also, Standpoint Theory makes assumptions about the nature of life:
 * 1) Class position gives a limited perspective on social relations.
 * 2) Ruling groups dominate subordinate groups and take the subordinate groups' opinions away from them.
 * 3) Subordinate groups have difficulties in the social life by dominating by ruling groups.
 * 4) Ruling groups have more powerful standpoint than subordinate groups.

In addition to these assumptions, Standpoint Theory suggests knowledge which is created by knowers as a concept of the theory. Also this theory highlights that social locations affect men and women's reactions in their social life. It means that "the perspectives of women's lives are more important key points than women's experiences," although this feminist standpoint theory needs to be developed by hearing more from those women who have not been examined as a part of this method.

Key Concepts of Standpoint Theory
Standpoint is a place to be shared with a group within a social structure by experiencing interactions and struggles of oppression. Standpoints are viewed in specific places, so they are partialand everyone does not have the same social hierarchy. However, Patrica Hill Collins suggests that people in lower positions in a hierarchy system can see more possibilities beyond their own specific social location.

Donna Haraway defined the term, situated knowledges in 1988, which means that people gain knowledge from their experiences. For example, knowledge of a person who is in charge of marketing and advertisement is different from knowledge of a person who is a kindergarden teacher.

Along with Haraway, Chafetz emphasized that women and men engage in different activities based on their sex, which is called sexual division of labor. Work tasks are divided by based on sex.

Critique of the Theory
Standpoint theory evaluates the critical perspective in communication theories. This theory is formed by social reality and culture and primarily shaped by those with power and without power. This theory's purpose is to promote participation and empowerment of those who are opposed or marginalized. Although standpoint theory can be examined, the most critical of this theory is utility. Since standpoint theory focuses on the location of social groups, many scholars argue that this theory is related to the idea of essentialism, which means that all women are essentially the same. People tend to think that people in the same social groups have the same perspectives; however, this is a problem with the theory. Researchers have argued that standpoint theory does not apply to universal levels. Standpoint Theory focuses on locations of the social groups, and so people tend to think that all women are essentially the same. However, they do not realize that there are different cultures present even it is in the same social group. Therefore, many researchers have doubted the idea of essentialism.