User:Millsnaps/Seljuk Empire

Architecture and Ceramics
Formidable artistic prosperity characterized the Seljuk dynasty: the remarkable amount of Seljuk artifacts evidence a dramatic expansion in the visual world. Most Seljuk arts are known to have been produced in what is modern-day Iran. Many works of Seljuk art continued to be produced following the decline of the empire in the late 12th century, when other dynasties such as the Ghaznavids came into power. In this regard, the timeline associated with the production of Seljuk art does not perfectly match the political events pertaining to the empire and its eventual fall. Among other ceramics, the manufacture of polychrome ceramic tiles, often used as decor in architecture, were popularized during the Seljuk dynasty. The Seljuks pioneered the use of the Minai technique, a painted and enameled polychrome overglaze for ceramics. The glazes on the Seljuk ceramics produced often ranged from a brilliant turquoise to a very dark blue. The art of Seljuk mosaic tile decorating would continue to dominate the interior of many Anatolian mosques following the period of Seljuk rule. The Seljuks also created ceramic house models, while other ceramic forms in the Seljuk period included pottery figurines, some of them children's toys.

In the realm of architecture, mosques and madrasas were created and embellished during the period of Seljuk control. Congregational mosques were either repaired, re-built, or constructed in their entirety. The Seljuk sultan also commissioned numerous madrasas to promote the teaching of orthodox Islamic sciences. These developments in architectural practice are coherent with the Seljuk dynasty's focus on Islam and the promotion of Muslim orthodoxy, the combining of Sufism and Sunnism. One architectural form that flourished during the Seljuk dynasty was the muqarnas. Some interpretations maintain that the earliest known examples of this architectural form were constructed during the period of Seljuk hegemony, though it also remains possible that they were being developed at the same time in North Africa. The layering of multiple embellished cells with distinct profiles in muqarnas produces a dome that has a seemingly-insubstantial interior, a visual effect produced by the play of light on the surface. Art historian Oleg Grabar argues that the visual effect of muqarnas domes embodies Qur'anic water symbolism. Examples of muqarnas also appear in the niches of mosques built during the Seljuk empire.

The Book Arts
The production of manuscripts, both secular and non-secular, played an important role during the period of Seljuk rule. Nonetheless, there are limitations on the availability of manuscripts produced during the height of Seljuk rule, spanning from approximately the 10th to 11th centuries. Art Historian Robert Hillenbrand explicitly refers to Seljuk book arts as a "vanishing school." Hillenbrand reminds those who take interest in these early manuscripts of their ultimate susceptibility to damage in comparison to other forms of physical artifacts. But those manuscripts that have survived over the centuries provide insight into the Seljuk's involvement in the arts of the book. Calligraphers and illuminators were responsible for the creation of these manuscripts, though sometimes calligraphers mastered the art of both writing and illustration. By the end of the 10th century, both illuminators and calligraphers were beginning to employ various colors, styles, and writing techniques in the realm of book arts.

The Qur'an's produced during the period of Seljuk rule evidence developments in calligraphy and other changes in how the holy text was divided. Uniquely, calligraphers during this period frequently combined several scripts on one page of the Qur'an, such as kufic and New Style. In addition to these changes in the text, the dawn of the Seljuk empire coincided with a newfound increase in the popularity of paper as a replacement for parchment in the Islamic world. The increased use of durable paper popularized the production of compact, single-volume Qur'an's, whereas previous parchment codexes would contain multiple volumes of Qur'anic text. Despite this development, parchment would remain popular for the production of some Qur'an's. The careful illumination of the borders of Seljuk Qur'an's continued to distinguish texts and relative consistency was maintained in regards to the structure of these codexes, which would often feature religious motifs.

One example of a manuscript created during Seljuk rule is a thirty-volume Qur'an (juz) produced in Iran c.1050. As paper had just been introduced to the Islamic world, this piece is an early Islamic paper manuscript. This Qur'an is bound in brown leather, dyed in pink, and decorated with gold. These elements imply the care that went into the production of this text, while other indications of frequent usage confirm that it was appreciated. It is primarily written in the vertical "New-Style" Arabic script, a sharp, vertical script. The dominant use of New Style in this folio, also referred to as "new Abbasid Script," attests to the shift from the geometric kufic script to a more legible calligraphic style. Scattered remnants of kufic, used primarily to indicate volume and page number, also appear in the text. The verticality of the paper in this manuscript speaks to the historic shift away from the horizontal use of paper in many Qur'ans. Despite the evident mistakes in the manuscript's vocalization markers, the Qur'anic law against destroying the word of God would have forbade the elimination of these flawed areas. Another example of a religious manuscript produced closer to the end of the period of Seljuk Rule is the Qarmathian Qur'an, a mushaf. The folio has been illuminated with a gold border and thin, spiraled illustration, the existence of which still allows for the complete legibility of the four lines of Qur'anic text. Created between the years 1170-1200, this particular folio demonstrates the evolution of New Script, as both cursive and diacritical dots appear in this later version of New Script. Only during the 13th century would New Script be replaced by the curvier proportional scripts for regular use.

A final example of a Seljuk Qur'an that has entered into modern scholarship is a Persian manuscript studied in-depth by the late art historian Richard Ettinghausen. This piece has been dated to the year 1164 and contains the entirety of the Qur'an. Unlike the two Seljuk Qur'ans discussed prior, this piece primarily contains naskh or nashki script, another early Arabic script that replaced kufic. However, some kufic calligraphy is still embedded in the chapter headings. This element speaks to how the inclusion of kufic in Qur'ans became more of a decorative element overtime, often included in headings as opposed to the main body of text. The manuscript is large, with seventeen lines of text per two-hundred and fifteen sheets of paper. Though not all of the Qur'an is illuminated, both the beginning and the end boast elaborate illustration, with striking blue, gold, and white hues. Ettinghausen describes the visual effect as "brilliant" and argues that this Persian Seljuk manuscript is written and illuminated in a style that persisted over the course of one-hundred and fifty years. The inscriptions feature detailed rosettes, vines, medallions, and arabesques, some exclusively as decoration and others to indicate the end of particular lines of Qur'anic text.

Manuscript production during the Seljuk period was not limited to religious texts. Beyond these religious manuscripts, numerous scientific and literary illustrated manuscripts were created. The imagery in these pieces was more secular, often incorporating more human and animal figures. Secular manuscripts from the period bear illuminations that relate to life at the Seljuk court, the alignment of planets, and the zodiac, a few examples of common themes. Seljuk illuminated manuscripts had enough influence as to inspire other relevant art forms, such as brass or bronze metal objects. For example, the Qarmathian Qur'an influenced some of the inscriptions on Seljuk ceramic wares. Even mirrors, candlesticks, coins, and jugs manufactured in Anatolia during the Seljuk period would often bear occult astrological images inspired by manuscripts. Occult knowledge persisted in manuscripts produced after the decline in the Seljuk's political power in the late 12th century, as the Seljuk sultanate's influence on the book arts continued in Anatolia.

Historian Andrew Peacock demonstrates an interest in the Seljuks of Anatolia's focus on occult themes. Peacock describes this finding as something that challenges the reigning view that the Seljuks were exclusively the "pious defenders of Islam" when it came to larger systems of belief. Some of the occult sciences that the Seljuks took special interest in included geomancy, astrology, alchemy. A relevant occult manuscript from a period of Seljuk influence is the Dustur al-Munajjimin, otherwise known as the "Rules of Astrologers," while another is the Daqa'iq al-Haqa'iq, or "Fine Points of Eternal Truths." The latter text captures an interest in magic and spells, with a particular focus on calling upon spiritual beings, such as angels, through ritualistic acts and was written by an author with a pen name, "Nasiri." Peacock elucidates a notable contradiction in Nasiri's Daqa-iq al-Haqa'iq: it challenges prevailing Islamic understandings of God while encouraging piety and invoking both Sufi terms and themes. For example, while incorporating a Sufi poem, the occult text speaks of supernatural bodies and disputes what Islam considers to be the accepted number of names for God.

The book arts emphasize the importance of calligraphy as an art form during the Seljuk period. Calligraphy is still popularized as an art form and now often appears on both canvases and sculptures.