User:Minorities observer/sandbox

New Turkish historians
Büsra Ersanli
 * Büsra Ersanli, "History Textbooks as Reflections of the Political Self : Turkey (1930s and 1990s) and Uzbekistan (1990s)". International Journal of Middle East Studies, 34 (2002), pp 337-349 (abstract)
 * Büsra Ersanli, "The Ottoman Empire in the Historiography of the Kemalist Era: a Theory of Fatal Decline", in: The Ottomans and the Balkans: A Discussion of Historiography. Edited by Suraiya Faroqhi and Fikret Adanır. Leiden: Brill, 2002, pp.115-154

Didem Turkoglu
 * Didem Turkoglu, Challenging the National History--Competing discourses about a Conference, Submitted to Central European University Nationalism Studies Program In Partial Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts, Budapest, Hungary, 2006

Splinters from the French Socialist Party

 * 2015-: Nouvelle Gauche socialiste (NGS)(fr), presided by Liêm Hoang Ngoc

Ministers of Jewish Affairs in the 1918-1919 Ukrainian governments
Secretary of Nationalities was expanded by the request of the Provisional Government as the minority representatives to Undersecretaries of ethnic affairs (deputies) and soon on July 17, 1917 Yefremov was replaced by Oleksander Shulhyn. At first the deputy secretaries of Nationalities were part of the secretariat of Nationalities headed initially by Serhiy Yefremov. With the proclamation of the III Universal on December 22, 1917 on the initiative of Oleksandr Shulhyn the Secretariat of Nationalities was transformed into the Secretariat of Foreign Affairs. The position for the Russian Affairs representative for quite sometime was left unoccupied although was specifically reserved for the Russian Provisional Government. After the Secretariat was reorganized as the Council of Ministers the deputy-secretaries received their own ministerial assignments.

Tordjman family
The Tordjman/Torjeman/Torgemane family is part of "la bourgeoisie tunisoise née dans le sillage du beylicat ottoman", "le nom de la jeune fille s’écrit Torjeman (et non Tordjman comme souvent orthographié par les médias). C’est un nom musulman a consonance arabo-turque, qui signifie ‘’traducteur’’ ou ‘‘interprète’’. Il renvoie à une haute fonction administrative et/ou politique dans la hiérarchie de cour des beys de Tunis, qui sont, comme on le sait, d’origine ottomane."
 * Taoufik Tordjman, Tunisian ambassador under Habib Bourguiba, later initiator of the Clinique Taoufik and the Touta retail shops (bought in 2003 by Ali Mabrouk, since then part of the Monoprix Tunisia group), and at the head of a main Tunisian bank, the Union internationale de banques
 * Yasmine Tordjman, granddaughter of Taoufik Tordjman, wife of former French minister Éric Besson, "ancien président directeur général de la Société nationale des hydrocarbures, puis de l’Union internationale des banques (Uib), entre 1972 et 1984, connu pour être un fin mélomane et un grand collectionneur d’œuvres d’art"
 * David Tordjman (probably no connection with the abovementioned), French businessman who has "links with the French-Tunisian milieu"

French and Dutch periods (1796-1830)
The annexation by France of the Austrian Netherlands, the principalities of Liège and Stavelot and the Duchy of Bouillon on 4 brumaire an IV (October 26, 1795) led to territorial reorganization, with the commune as the basic territorial unit. In 1800, there were 2,741 communes in what is now Belgium. However, the French authorities wanted to reduce the number of communes in the Belgian départements, and urged the prefects to take measures to reduce the number of communes. 127 communes were abolished during this period in the Jemappe, Dyle and Sambre-et-Meuse departments. . The Dutch period did not put an end to this process, which continued to a lesser extent, reaching 2,492 communes in 1830. .

From independence to the interwar period (1830-1940)
With Belgium's independence, the trend was reversed with the creation of new communes, reaching its peak in 1928, when the country counted 2,675 communes, after 153 had been created and 7 abolished over the same period. . Thus, in 1896, the hamlet called La Bretagne separated from Landelies (part of Montigny-le-Tilleul since 1977) to become autonomous under the name Goutroux. Article 7 of the Belgian Constitution (currently article 7) and the provincial law of 1836 codify the procedures for mergers or the creation of new communes in Belgium. .

During this period, Belgium underwent two changes to its territorial boundaries. In 1839, the Treaty of the XXIV Articles led Belgium to cede part of its territory, forming the Province of Limburg (Netherlands) and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. Since 1830, Belgium had administered the whole of Limbourg and Luxembourg. In 1831, the Treaty of the Eighteen Articles recognized this, but it was never signed by the Netherlands. The corresponding communes were therefore lost in 1839. After the First World War, the communes of the Eastern Cantons (Belgium) were taken over from Germany.

Population movements, the rural exodus and the economic upheavals of the 19th and early 20th centuries led to new thinking on the organization of the municipal map, especially in Brussels, where there was a desire to create a "Greater Brussels". On the eve of the First World War, two solutions were put forward: grouping together the outlying communes with Brussels, or creating an inter-communal structure to manage certain responsibilities. In 1921, just after the war, the mayor of Brussels, Adolphe Max, proposed the creation of a metropolitan district for the Brussels conurbation. In the same year, the communes of Laeken, Neder-Over-Heembeek and Haren merged with Brussels to form the City of Brussels. Publications on communal management in the interwar period, outlining ideas for the future of communes, including the merger of communes. .

World War II
The German occupation of Belgium during the Second World War overturned the kingdom's communal structure. The Germans wanted the outlying communes around major conurbations to form a single commune with a single administration and police organization. As a result of the occupier's will, communes were grouped together, leading to the birth of seven large communes between 1941 and 1942: Antwerp, Bruges, Brussels, Charleroi, Ghent, La Louvière and Liège. The legal authorities opposed these creations, and on February 1, 1943, the Court of Cassation confirmed the illegality of the creation of Greater Antwerp, despite the insistence of the occupation authorities. The end of the German occupation of Belgium during the Second World War put a radical end to these mergers of communes and a return to the pre-war status quo, but the idea was not abandoned.

Unitary Law
In the aftermath of the Second World War, four communes were abolished between 1945 and 1961. On January 1, 1961, there were 2,663 communes in Belgium. , As early as 1957, a ministerial circular in 1957 and a government declaration by the Eyskens III Government in November 1958 encouraged small communes to merge. This led to the Unitary Law of February 14, 1961, which introduced new provisions to facilitate mergers of communes by giving the government the right to carry out such regroupings for a period of ten years. These new provisions led to an initial reduction in the number of communes. In 1964, Belgium had 2,585 communes, of which 110 communes were grouped into 37 new entities. By 1970, Belgium had grown to 2,379 communes, then the following year to 2,359 communes.

At the end of this ten-year period, in 1971, Lucien Harmegnies, Minister of the Interior under the Eyskens IV Government (1968-1972), decided to proceed with the remembrement of the territory and had a new law passed on July 23, 1971. It broadens the scope of the Unitary Law to make it applicable in the case of large conurbations, initially excluded from these provisions. However, no new merger proposals were put forward until June 1974.

Michel Plan and 1977 merger
In September 1974, the Minister of the Interior, Joseph Michel, of the Tindemans II Government, announced the launch of the remodeling of the communal map, to be completed by the communal elections of October 1976. Several criteria were used to group communes together, such as financial, geographical, linguistic, economic, social or cultural elements, without altering the boundaries of the administrative districts and provinces unless they were justified under the law of July 23, 1971. After consulting the provinces and communes between September 1974 and January 1975 on merger proposals, a draft merger plan was written and submitted to two regional ministerial committees, one for Wallonia and the other for Flanders.

This project resulted in the Royal Decree of September 17, 1975, dividing Belgium into 589 communes by January 1, 1977, but was postponed by six years for Antwerp and seven communes on its outskirts.

This was ratified by the law of December 30, 1975. On January 1, 1977, Belgium went from 2,359 to 596 communes.

Antwerp merger and rectification of municipal boundaries (1977-1983)
Following the adoption of the law of December 1975, a special commission was set up in each province in 1976 to rectify the administrative boundaries of all 596 communes .After discussions with communes, individuals and private bodies, royal decrees were issued in 1982 to finalize the rectifications.

Having obtained a six-year reprieve, in the course of 1982, two decrees and two laws regulate the details of the merger of the communes of Antwerp, Berchem, Borgerhout, Deurne, Ekeren, Hoboken, Merksem and Wilrijk for January 1, 1983. Belgium increases to 589 on January 1, 1983, as stipulated by the law of December 30, 1975: 308 in the Flemish Region, 262 in the Walloon Region and 19 in the Brussels-Capital Region.