User:Mitsuki152/History of Korean Popular Music

Random collection of articles on the history of Korean popular music. Small snippets can probably be used in the Kpop article.

IIAS Workshop Abstract
http://www.iias.nl/files/Workshop%20abstracts%20East%20Asian%20Popular%20Music.pdf

Muse (JHU) trot paper
http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/asian_music/v037/37.1son.pdf

University of Georgia paper
Not so useful for Wikipedia, but a really interesting paper to read. Korean Rap at the Cusp: a Proposal for Analyzing Relations of Power Soon-Chul Shin & Elizabeth P. Lester, Ph.D.

Abstract
Among the many cultural products, pop music plays a uniquely significant role in terms of everyday life practices. One of the most distinctive characteristics of pop music is its "transnationality." This paper focuses on the relationship between the pop music genres, rock and rap, and an issue of identity in Korean teen culture. U. S. rock and rap have been successfully articulated in the Korean pop field, and the Korean "teen bloc" has positively negotiated with the transnationality of U. S. pop culture. Yet among the five moments on the circuit of culture (Production, Representation, Identification, Consumption, and Regulation)[1] the only territory that Korean teens occupy is the Consumption phaseDteens express their identity by purchasing cultural items with which they identify. Before their purchase, a "negotiated" process is successfully completed and the collective body of this similar-taste group forms a (sub)cultural bloc. However, a cultural struggle between the "parent/adult blocs" and the teen blocs is becoming increasingly problematic in Korea. Teens have incorporated what the parent blocs call mediocre American culture; the ensuing struggle emerges not only from generational taste but from specific issues of power. The parent blocs wield double blades; the first blade detaches teens from mediocre imported culture; the second profits from their attachments to cultural tastes. Teens' awareness of these processes cannot remove them from their weaker power position. Thus the importing, negotiating, and articulating of identity issues will continue. Soon-Chul Shin is graduate student of College of Journalism & Mass Communication at the University of Georgia-Athens. Elizabeth P. Lester is Associate Professor of College of Journalism & Mass Communication at the University of Georgia-Athens. [1] Paul Du Gay, et al.(1997) Doing Cultural Studies, (London: Routledge), 3. [2] Paul Du Gay, et al.(1997) Doing Cultural Studies, (London: Routledge), 3.

Globalize local repertoire
Among numerous cultural texts, music seems the rawest form of personal expression[2], and perhaps also the most intimate form of cultural text in our every day lives. People sing their favorite tunes whether at work, home, in the shower or driving. Music can be played in various forms from the private (Walkman) to a mass audience (coliseum concerts). Unlike other cultural texts, hit songs are played with great repetition on radio, TV, and increasingly on the World Wide Web, transmitting the fundamental information contained in the song.

Moreover, people access popular songs at a comparatively low cost; people may record current hit songs from radio programs, or music videos from TV at negligible cost. Popular music sends particular musical and lyrical contents deep and wide into society, even across national borders, for the duration of its first-run popularity through repetition, then reappearing with systematic frequency as "oldies."[3]

Through popular music, unlike other cultural products, the audience is not only consuming--buying records, subscribing to magazines and fanzines, wearing costumes--but also "practicing" the musical images and creativity. Thus, a problematic arises when the lived practices and aesthetic tastes surrounding a music genre are transfused (or traded) from one cultural bloc to another. Presumably, some of the original meanings and connotations in the genre may be preserved while some may be altered according to the situational condition of the receiving bloc: e.g., new meanings added, others totally ignored, etc. During these processes of acceptance, alteration, and disregard, "negotiation"[4] and "articulation"[5] occur between text, audience, and various social factors. We analyze the differences and similarities in meanings of pop music genres (specifically rock and rap) between U.S.A. and Korea examining the processes of negotiation and articulation of U. S. forms in the Korean social formation in terms of cultural studies and political economy.

The large questions are: Why do Korean audiences, mostly teenagers, enjoy the American music genres like rock and rap? What cultural processes influence the integration of these imported musical genres, into the differentiated social positions of parent bloc and teen bloc? In this paper we carve out the special territory of teenagers as a "teen bloc," i.e. we describe an aspect of the process by which Korean young people create social space within a dominant culture. A specific dimension of the Korean social formation, "age-ism"[6] is highlighted as a particular problematic.

Importing "Others"
To understand Korean popular music, American popular music must be examined because rock and rap music originated in America. Those forms are now successfully articulated in the Korean market.[7] Also, since the Korean liberation from Japanese imperialism, American culture, economic power and political relations to Korea have played such influential role that it is impossible to explain Korean culture without mentioning American influences.

Like any other popular cultural genre, Korean popular music reflects the history and culture of Korea. The history of Korean popular music is a history of import. Missionary groups from Europe and America first introduced the record player to Korea around 1890. The first recording company was established in 1929 under the influence of a Japanese production company. From 1910 to 1945 Korea was colonized by Japanese imperialism and during this period Japanese enka-like "pong-chak"[8] was practically the only "popular" music genre. Most songwriters and musicians were educated in Japan and acquainted with Japanese and Western cultural trends. Most popular music fans were bourgeoisie who maintained pro-Japanese ways of life. Thus Korean popular music culture had to contend with heavy influence of Japanese culture.

Since 1945, when Korea was liberated from the Japanese and experienced the U. S. military administration for three years (1945-1948), Western popular music, especially American pop music, has been influential in Korea, engulfing the Japanese. Rock'n'roll, blues, folk, jazz, soul, even country & western were introduced to Korea by the American administrators and later by soldiers who came for the Korean War (1950-1953). The U. S. 8th Armies based in Seoul and other major cities in Korea continue to play a powerful role in Korean pop music; American Forces Korean Network (AFKN) TV and radio programs provide up-to-date American culture to Korean people.

In the 1960s, Korean rock bands started to emerge. Most of the Korean rockers began their musical careers in the clubs of the U. S. 8th Army bases. Thereafter, rapid industrialization and the distribution of TV sets brought them off the bases into the Korean pop field which until then was dominated by "pong-chak."

The complicated political, social, and cultural environment of the 1970s led rock culture in Korea to be overwhelmed again by "pong-chak." Among the reasons for the near-demise of Korean rock was the impact of marijuana. Big names such as Joong-Hyun Shin, Love and Peace, and many other rock pioneers practically ended their career because of the strict social atmosphere and legal control of marijuana; nationwide anti-drug campaigns were launched and buyers largely boycotted the marijuana-convicted artists' albums. Heavy penalties were imposed on marijuana smokers among whom many were popular Korean rockers.

At the same time, a nationwide campaign to expel "mediocre" Western culture was also initiated. Any suggestion in lyrics about drug addiction, suicide, anti-social movement, free sex, or sexual fantasy was labeled as "the incursion of Western trash" and strongly censored; even songs containing anti-drug or anti-suicide message were prohibited. If marijuana extinguished rock culture, strict censorship was a death-knell for folk music. The sale and broadcasting of many folk songs were prohibited with the charges of being "anti-governmental" and even as "propagandizing communism." However, censorship was abolished in mid-1990s and all the songs previously prohibited were re-released.

Rock and rap music in full scale appeared in late-1980s; from the start, rap enjoyed popularity among younger teens, dropouts, girls, and it is played mostly through mass media. Rock culture is rampant among older teens, college students, boys, and is played in underground clubs and concert stadiums. An indication of the strength of the industry is that major multinational labels in the Korean market and domestic labels distributed 74,523 imported album titles, from June to December 1996, and Korean musicians release about 28,000 titles annually. Overall, Korea ranked as the sixth country among top ten U.S. media export markets in 1994, surpassing Spain, Australia/New Zealand and Canada,[9] and eleventh in the music market category.

Negotiation and Articulation of American (USA) Music Genres
When a text is "read,"[10] the reader interacts or negotiates with it; this negotiation involves the readers bringing their own cultural experiences, their own socially located meaning systems, to bear upon the text. The meaning of the text perceived by a reader is the result of the negotiation between the text and the reader--it is therefore potentially unique.[11]

The negotiation process in popular culture is basically related to the matter of taste and identification. Before a group of individuals form a taste bloc, they first "negotiate" meanings with the texts according to their socially constructed identities; they selectively interpret reality to fit preconceptions of themselves and the world. Factors like race, gender, age, religion, and social factors like economic class and education can also play important roles. Success in identification leads to success in marketing strategy, or as Stuart Hall argues, meaning is the matter of consumption and vice versa.

Applied to the relationship between popular music and teen culture, the "negotiation" process explains how teens set up the struggle for public legitimacy of a preferred life-style based on their taste, and sometimes even to achieve public sanction. Usually "negotiation" brings out the separation, or distinction, practice to form a taste bloc with whom members can share the same negotiated meanings. Teenagers strongly identify themselves with this taste bloc, sometimes more with bloc itself than the negotiated meaning. Hostile relationships are developed between different blocs, especially between the parent bloc and teen bloc.

Among the major negotiation processes[12] some occur without the specific relationship to music. Thus, in studying the negotiation process in popular music and other cultural studies, a triangular relation of the music text, its audience, and the institutional apparatus is to be emphasized. However, only the second negotiation, that between musical text and its audience, will be discussed here.

Our meaning of "negotiation" concerns individual actions toward a specific cultural product, cultural commodity, or even popular celebrity in terms of how the individuals select and identify themselves with cultural products according to their preferences. Success in "negotiation" leads to purchase of the product, and, moreover, possibly leads to the dimension of identification. At an individual level, the utmost active behavior concerning attitude toward a cultural product is the decision making process of "negotiation" and identification. However, when individuals with the same "negotiated" preference establish or organize a type of taste bloc (e.g. fan club, club goers, genre freak, etc.) their social influence and power increases enormously.

Although concepts of "negotiation" and "articulation" are intimately related to economic factors, and economic interests play an important role in the last instance. The economic concept of class alone cannot explain the symbolic struggle between power blocs, or power relations between taste blocs, in a social formation. Bourdieu's concept of "distinction" emphasizes that people's tastes for popular culture are based on economic class and socially constructed. However, other special factors, for example the "age-ism" in Korea, are also influential in taste bloc formation.

In decoding popular cultural products, "distinction" entails "negotiation" and accumulated negotiation entails the formation of taste bloc. The struggle between symbolic systems to impose a view of the world defines the social space within which people construct their lives, and carry on what Bourdieu calls "the symbolic conflicts of everyday." [13]

One of the transnational trends in popular culture is that youth, or teen blocs, occupy one of the five circuit of culture: consumption. A study in the United States conducted by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) shows that in terms of total dollars spent on phonograms of all kinds, people under 25 years old purchased approximately 55% of all phonogram sold in the United States.[14] In Japan, "Kogals" (high school girls) emerged as the leading consumer group in popular music, fashion, accessories, cellular phones, pagers, etc.[15] In Korea also, teens dominate the territory of consuming popular culture, replacing even college students. During the last five years teens purchased more than 60% of the recorded music in Korea and the number is increasing.[16]

One of the distinctive features of the audience in a capitalist society is its common positioning within the constructed individual personality; even more, various cultural products are bought and used as tools for the construction of personality. But the paradox is that each individual seeks to build her/his own image through mass products. Considering that the fabrication of individual difference through mass products is an ideological form of capitalism, the media in our society, operating as a type of Ideological State Apparatus (ISA),[17] offer images with which the viewer can identify and from which they "choose" their personality.

Teens consume musical products in terms of that identification process which also requires distinction as a social practice. In the Korean pop field, distinction almost always overlaps with contexts surrounding "age" and teen fans identify themselves with popular stars because they are also teens. Other elements, even the music texts itself play lesser roles in the identification process. However, a paradox is that teen star "wannabes" are unable to become stars because they are excluded from/by crucial elements in cultural circuit of institution, regulation, and production which are wholly dominated by older generations, or parent blocs. In sum, the parent blocs take advantage of teens' taste, ignoring their desire for building identities, while teen blocs only do what they can do--buy products. Within the consumption territory they occupy, and despite their awareness, teens surrender money/power to the parent blocs.

Every society has its own negotiational clue; a successful "negotiation" in one society does not necessitate success in another one. For example, racism trends in the United States and other multi-ethnic countries are widely negotiated and articulated in producing and marketing pop music, and sometimes manipulated according to the economic success of an artist. However, this racism strategy would not work in a single-ethnic country like Korea. Instead, there is a unique negotiational clue of Koreans' own: "age-ism"Di.e., age discrimination.

Until the 1980s, there were two possible ways to become a pop music star in Korea. First, many talented college students became famous through several college song festivals sponsored by broadcasting companies and record producers. Most participants sang unpublished songs written by themselves. If they won the festival award, they became a star. Second, numerous stars, who were usually better at singing than composing were picked up at auditions sponsored by production companies or management agencies. Most stars at that time were college students or graduates aged between 20~25. Even though they were in their 20s, and targeted younger audiences, they did not intentionally exclude the older generations from their range of fans. But the appearance of rap music in Korea also brought the clear discrimination of age into pop music, exploiting an aspect of already-existing Korean social formation..

In the 1990s, with successfully articulated rap into Korean popular music field, and the emergence of teens as the leading consumer group in the popular music market, the average age of popular singers lowered to 15-19. The popularity of college song festivals has declined, and some have vanished altogether. Currently only agencies and production companies hold the auditions which supply teen stars to the popular music market. The most preferred audition applicants sought by agencies and companies are: 1) those who are as young as 15 years old and no older than 19, 2) well versed in singing, dancing, or rapping, 3) 'telegenic,' 4) able to speak a foreign language or have experienced living abroad. Teen audiences no longer respect education or demand high quality musical ability. High school dropouts, street dancers who are not interested in singing but only in dancing for profit, social "misfits" who have previously lived in foreign countries, runaways, and homeless teens constitute the majority of audition applicants. The shift in age and relative status, both of "stars" and of the "teen bloc"/ consumers of the 1990s suggest a shift of identification as well as a shift in the gaps of power.

George Lipsitz adopts Gramsci's concept of "intellectuals" with its distinction between "organic intellectuals" and "traditional intellectuals"; the former referred to those who spontaneously create social systems in order to raise their own awareness and to ensure their greater cohesion (e.g., pop singers, sports stars, social movement leaders, other opinion leaders in various forms) while the latter referred to those who are legitimated by the current system (e.g., professors, teachers, religious leaders, journalists, legislators, etc.). Lipsitzs proposes the possibility of interpreting rock musicians as organic intellectuals who actively produce and distribute knowledge. Just as musical texts mean more than melody recorded on a plastic piece called CD, pop stars mean more than famous singers performing on a stage. They possess the qualities of organic intellectuals and are more influential than traditional intellectuals to teenagers. As members of an aggrieved community, according to Lipsitz, and as artists involved in the generation and circulation of ideas reflecting the needs of that community, rockers and rappers then function as "organic intellectuals" who attempt to pose a "counter-hegemony" by presenting images subversive of existing power relations.[18]

The development of celebrities is connected to ways of "making sense" of the society. The ways in which different social groups use celebrities to make sense of their surrounding can be seen as a form of rationalization. For the dominant culture, this form of rationalization usually means working toward an ideological positioning of the subculture within consumer capitalism. For the subcultures, the celebrity articulates an avenue for the expression of their own notion of freedom, fantasies, and needs.[19]

Articulative relationships are established when "cross-connotation" takes place, when two or more different elements are able to connote, symbolize or evoke each other. When the articulative process works well, the pattern of elements that it organizes appears 'natural' and usually spreads widely through society. In Korea, rock and rap are more easily articulated to teens than parents because teens, who did not experience the era of Japanese colonialism, have shaped their tastes in an American-oriented way.

Korean parent blocs use negative articulations as well as positive articulations concerning teenagers' popular music preferences. Negative articulations vary from wide, indirect, historical tactics such as the Euro-centric education system, Korean traditional cultural ethics, and other socialization processes to narrow, targeted, direct ones like anti-Americanism, censorship, and the prohibition of hip hop fashion at school. On the other hand, some of the parent blocs continue to articulate positive meanings to rap and other Western musical genres to stimulate teens' consumption. Among them, adopting rhyme in lyrical composition in Korean rap can be considered as a distinction strategy because usually Korean popular song lyrics have been composed with rhymeless free verse. Teens are aware that American rap lyrics are composed in a strict rhyme system; this fact appeals to Korean teens because it distinguishes rap music from parents' taste. This distinctive new feature of rap might be "identifiable" or "negotiable."

Conclusion
The starting point in popular music studies is the recognition that the music is created and produced to sell. It is a convention for musicians to internalize the standard of commodification for musical texts. The value of a particular musical text is judged according to whether it is a "sellable" product, where the criteria for the judgment are predetermined.[20] The relationship between music consumers and producers can be summarized as "negotiation (for buying)" and articulation (for selling)"

In Korea, it used to be the parent culture that dominated the social discourse on "culture." Parents limited the range of expressive levels in pop song lyrics, expressive forms in general, the pop music industry, and what their children could, and could not, listen to. However, starting in the late '80s, youth culture began to formulate its own tastes and its own ways of identification. And this phenomenon was enabled by the teen bloc's emergence as the leading consumer group in Korean society.

One of the outstanding characteristics in teen culture (as one of numerous subcultural categories) is that, unlike other subcultural movements, it has no absolute target for its resistance to the mainstream culture; each subculture has its own ideal image of society, or at the very least, better-than-now future images. However, teen bloc members (as a subculture) do not much intend to improve their futures; instead their vision is to set themselves free from parental power. Thus, teen culture cares for escaping "from" the dominant culture while other subcultural blocs try to get "into" some ideal stage while preferring to ignore the dominant culture.

The parent blocs in Korea try to utilize teens tastes for rock and rap in order to make profits even though they fail to negotiate any preferable meanings from those genres. Korean parent blocs also articulate, in negative ways, to detach teens from American-oriented texts despite the fact that parents prefer Japanese-oriented genres. The parent bloc, in Korea, has so articulated Japanese forms to their own lived experience that they identify those as "authentically" Korean. They prefer to subvert teen identity by promoting these as authentically Korean. Teens' discourse eschews connection to the parent bloc regardless of other discourse (such as discourse of authentic culture).

In this struggle between ways of life in Korea (parent culture vs. teen culture), the parent blocs which dominate practically the entire media including media content production processes, continuously frames teen culture as immature, dangerous, and inferior. Related to media, teen culture members may typically react to parents' interference in two ways: building underground media against parents' media, as an active reaction, or ignoring messages from their parents and parents' media, as an passive reaction. In Korea, the latter one is the primary reaction of teen culture to parent culture.

The contribution of this brief discussion is three-fold. First, we describe and analyze particular processes of transnational communication as those are worked out in Korea. Specifically we identify and describe the impact of a facet of Korean culture "age-ism" on teenagers and adults. We situate that conflict within processes of negotiation and articulation of U.S. musical genres of rock and rap. Second, we remove the negotiation process from its realm of encoding/decoding by reconstructing it as both an individual and collective process. Third, we make the concept of articulation more robust by insisting on its economic as well as cultural components. Articulation here means a purposeful practice to over-value or devalue certain texts by connecting two or more elements which are not necessarily related; that practice must be understood economically as well as culturally. Articulation as we use it is cultural because value is constructed within the ordinary experiences of everyday life. It is economical because it is an essential aspect (from provider's point of view) of stimulating (or perhaps preventing) consumption. This is a contribution to an understanding of the process of articulation because unlike previous research this study questions the structural bases of the process as an endemic aspect of the concept itself.

Detailed analysis of articulation processes, the appearance of hybrid culture as a result of articulation, and other negotiations, e.g. between musical texts and institutions, regulations, etc., can also be proposed as further research topics related more generally to popular music and teen culture.

Our research agenda includes enlarging this discussion into a more complete study of both the negotiation and articulation of rock and rap into the Korean social formation. That research would includes, for example, interest in production processes, lyrics, practices of fans, recorded and live performance. Appendix. 1. Examples of Korean Rock and Rap Lyrics Comeback Home by Taiji & Boys I have seen the end of my life And I have felt the end of my happiness I wanted to fly but the truth disappeared From the tip of my tongue Again, another meaningless life is born And his dream will be torn Now they got what they want And I lost everything Is it time to dry the tears and comeback home? (Original lyrics composed in Korean) Classroom Idea by Taiji & Boys Cut it out, cut it out Cut the shit you're saying in the classroom I've had enough, enough is enough I've had enough of your classroom idea Who put that funny idea in your head that 9 million students around Korean will spend their youth in your classroom? (Original lyrics composed in Korean) Young Nation by Jinusean featuring D.O Young Nation all the fly Asians Get on the vibe and flowDrock it with Jinusean uh! Let's get up! And pop it like we ain't ever gonna stop it Like boots Timberland "man," Let me tell you we got skillz kickin' for the real "man" Representin' Seoul, Korea, so what's the big idea? Like Taiji we be crazy so we got no fear So give it up 'cuz we keep it up Ain't never gonna sleep it up, Jinusean's the vaccination of Satan infiltration Infatuation of lust is not what we thrust But in God we trust Anticipation of days, of anti-corruption With worldwide calibration we come thru, down-size your crew Leavin' you with less than zero unlike the hero in your mirror, Yeah (Original lyrics composed in English) Give Me All by Uptown We're gonna drop this one, with a little UPTOWN love 'Cuz all I wanna do is comfort you Take my hand and close your eyes 'cuz I'm pushing all my love inside you. Now I really wanna loving you till I see morning turn night How hot, how hot will I Smell the sex, roaming all around Dizzy all around as we cuddle under your goose down Putting the sex into intense It'll be deep pleasure going deep deep low Intense in slow mo, the way I'm making you moan, oh Moaning like you never eva moaned before Makin' sure sweet sweat pours down real slow (Original lyrics composed in English) Creaking, Squeaking  by D.J.D.O.C. I really love to watch the TV news because it is much funnier Than comedy programs. Politicians are fighting everyday, fighting like dogs, Fighting dirtier than dogs. I am worried that those scenes have bad influence to my dog "Hammer." It's time to change it. I can't stand it. Because the low lives are always low. So we have to change it. Creaking, squeaking this world goes around (how damned it is) The rich get richer while the poor get poorer. You can't survive without money, without power. Nothing seems right in this country. You say I am wrong? You say I am going too far? Do I look like a communist? (Original lyrics composed in Korean) Gate of the World by N.ex.T Part II: The World We Made Do you still believe in the things you see? Can you go to bed with that belief at night? You maybe think that "now" is better than "then." Collapsed department store, collapsed bridge. Who can I blame? Who can you blame? For we're all part of those crimes. What is progress? What is development? For whom do they exist? Welcome to the world we made, home automation system's ready. Welcome to the world we made, you're the internet hero Welcome to the world we made, it takes us to tragedy Welcome to the world we made, and it takes us to zero (Original lyrics composed in English and Korean) Appendix. 2. Interviews #1. Interview with Ms. Joh, the owner of underground rock club  Q: What kind of rock bands perform in your club and who are the audience? A: Most of the bands are playing alternative rock. Co-Core, Huck, Moraine, Youth Union, Junky, UFP are alternative rock bands, Love Mart, Cosmos, Yellow Kitchen are modern rock bands. Most of the audience are college, or    high school students. But rarely people over 30s are also in audience. [21] Q: Some say that underground club culture emerged as an alternative youth culture. What do you feel about that? A: I don't know whether it is truly an alternative culture or just a short term pad. When I first opened this place a year and half ago, this was the only place around here to enjoy live performance, but now we have dozens of clubs in    this street. I just hope that it would last. Q: What is the hardest part in running your club? A: Well..I think government's policy regarding culture is going wrong these days. For example, it is illegal selling alcoholic beverages in rock concerts and also illegal performing rock music in club where alcoholic beverahges are sold. What they think is that alcohol and rock don't mix. Thus I have to depend on the sales of Coke and Evian to run this place. #2. Interview with Jong-Huy Kim, the editor of fanzine  Q: How can you summarize the meaning of ? A: The word "gong" means "nothing," or a "ball" in Korean. I chose this title because we have to keep on rolling to stay fresh, and we open our minds, so wide open that we have nothing to hide. Q: What are the differences between  and other fanzines? A: First,  is fanzine for fanzines. Recently "Open Alliance for     Underground Clubs" was launched and  is the fanzine for that Alliance. I don't really care about musical genres but the spirit they're     sharingDthe underground spirit. Thus  may carry articles about any underground musicians, bands, clubs, club-goers, and the Alliance. Appendix. 3.  Album & Single Charts of 27 March 1998 Album Chart  (Musician, genre) 1       Shin, Sung-Hoon     (Easy-listening, Pop) 2       Park, Sang-Min       (Rock) 3       Kim, Jung-Min        (Rock) 4       Kim, Jang-Hoon      (Rock) 5       Park, Jin-Young      (Dance, Rap) 6       Kim, Gunmo           (Dance) 7.   Park, Ji-Yoon          (Dance) 8.   Kull                         (Dance) 9.   Kim, Jong-So          (Metal) 10. Kim, Jong-Hwan     (Easy-listening, Pop) 11. Ria                           (Rock) 12. Adam                       (Rock) 13     Soundtrack "Love" 14     Onion                       (Pop) 15. SES                          (Dance) 16. Pearl                         (Dance) 17. An, Ch-Hwan           (Folk) 18. Say Good Bye          (Pop) 19. Kim, Kyung-Ho       (Metal) 20. Park, Jung-Hyun       (Pop) 21. Pause                         (Pop) 22. Byun, Jin-Sub           (Easy-listening) 23. The The                     (Rock) 24. Uncle                         (Pop) 25. Turbo                        (Dance, Rap) 26. Kim, Hyun-Chul       (Pop) 27. Jawoo Rim                (Rock) 28. Lee, Mibae                (Pop) 29. Park, Ki-Young         (Pop) 30. ART                          (Dance, Rap) Single Chart  (Musician, Genre) 1.   Park, Ji-Yoon             (Dance) 2.   Park, Jin-Young         (Dance, Rap) 3.   SES                            (Dance) 4.   ART                           (Dance) 5.   Kim, Kyung-Ho         (Metal) 6.  Kim, Jong-So             (Metal) 7.  Kim, Gunmo              (Dance) 8.  Lee, Huy-Jae              (Pop) 9.  Esther                         (Rock) 10. OPPA                        (Rap) Bibliography Althusser, Louis(1971), Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, London: New Left Books.

Bourdieu, Pierre (1977), Outline of a Theory of Practice, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP.

Burnett, Robert (1996), The Global Jukebox: The International Music Industry, London: Routledge.

Lipsitzs, George (1990), Time Passages: Collective Memory and American Popular Culture, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

Lull, James (1992), Popular Music and Communication, London: Sage.

Marshall, David (1997), Celebrities and Power: Fame in the Contemporary Culture, Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

O'Sullivan, Tim, et al. (eds., 1994), Key Concepts in Communication and Cultural Studies, London: Routeldge.

Redhead, Steve, et al. (eds., 1997), The Clubcultures Reader: Readings in Popular Cultural Studies, Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.

Turner, Graeme (1990), British Cultural Studies, Boston: Unwin Hyman.

Turow, Joseph (1997), Media Systems in Society, New York: Longman.

[1] These PR slogans of major conglomerates in music industry simultaneously emphasize that they are globalized, or internationalized companies. Robert Burnett(1996), Global Jukebox, (London: Routledge), 8.

[2] Simon Frith(1992). "The Industrialization of popular Music" in James Lull (ed.) Popular Music and Communication (London: Sage), 49.

[3] James Lull(1992). Popular Music and Communication, (London: Sage), 4.

[4] "Negotiation" is originated from semiotics to explain idiosyncratic interpretation of text. A reader does not accept whatever she/he contact but selectively "negotiate" according to her/his cultural experience, economic background, and other social locations. In this thesis "negotiation" specifically refers to the precondition for consumption.

[5] "Articulation" usually means a hierarchical combination of ideological elements, in order to impose more powerful connotation on the combined meanings. In this thesis, "articulation" refers to the marketing strategy to stimulate consumption.

[6] "Age-ism" is an identification process which is similar to "generation gap" but which is more intensified concept. "Age-ism" lacks any kind of reconcilable "bridge" between taste blocs, while "generation gap" suggests there remain some "bridges." Thus, "age-ism" is more intense and therefore more virulent. "Age-ism" as a significant division in the Korean social formation is related to experience of distinctive periods of Japanese colonialism and U.S. cultural imperialism.

[7] In 1990 survey, almost 40% of Korean teenagers identified themselves as rock fans, 76.1% as dance fans.

[8] "Pong-Chak," one of the mot popular genres in Korean pop songs, is usually composed in trot rhythm and sung in exaggerating manner. It is still controversial if Korean "pong-chak" was originated from Japanese "enka" or vice versa. Some critics assert that "pong-chak" came from Korean traditional folk songs while "enka" from Japanese tradition. Both Korean "Pong-chak" and Japanese "enka" maintain popularity in older generations in both countries.

[9] Joseph Turow, Media Systems in Society, (New York: Longman), 241.

[10] One of the most recognizable and important theoretical differences of Cultural Studies from existing academic trends is that it has developed the concept of the "reading" of "texts" as a skill, referring to cultural products, social practices, even institution, as "texts." Graeme Turner(1990), British Cultural Studies, (Boston: Unwin Hyman), 87.

[11] Tim O'Sullivan, et al(eds., 1994), Key Concepts in Communication and Cultural Studies (London: Routledge), 17-18.

[12] Those are: 1) the negotiation between musical text and institutional apparatus and 2) the negotiation between musical text (including texts surrounding music itself such as pop stars, their fashion styles, music videos, etc.) and the audience. Of course, other negotiation processes (like the one between the institution and audience or the one between two different institutional apparatuses or audience groups) may take place.

[13] Pierre Bourdieu(1977), Outline of a Theory of Practice, (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press), 115.

[14] Robert Burnett, The Global Jukebox, 83.

[15] Weekly Chosun, vol. 125 (13 November 1997)

[16] '96 Whitebook of (Korean) Popular Culture and Censorship, 62-65.

[17] Louis Althusser(1971), Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, (London: New Left Books)

[18] George Lipsitz,(1990), Time Passages: Collective Memory and American Popular Culture, (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press), 152.

[19] David Marshall (1997), Celebrities and Power: Fame in the Contemporary Culture, (Minneapolis: UM Press), 56.

[20] Beverly Best, "Over-the-Counter-Culture: Retheorizing Resistance in Popular Culture," in The Clubcultures Reader, 21.

[21] Webzine NETOP (www.mbc.co.kr/NETOP 9801), January 1998.

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