User:Mlhooten

Space science
Space Science is an all-encompasing term that describes most all of the various sciences that are concerned with the study of the Universe, generally also meaning "excluding the Earth" and "outside of the Earths atmosphere". Originally all of these sciences were considered part of Astronomy. However over the recent years the major sub sciences within astronomy have grown so large that they are now considered overall sciences on their own. For instance Astrophysics is now generally regarded on its own. There are 8 overall categories that can generally be described on thier own; Astrophysics, Galactic Science, Stellar Science, non-Earth Planetary Science, Biology of Other Planets, Astronautics/Space Travel, Space Colonization and Space Defense. Non-Earth Planetary Science has separated from Astronomy because of the extensive data about the Solar System Planets that has been collected and analyzed. Similarly, Stellar Science has separated from Astronomy because of the massive data collected on the millions of different suns that we can actually see or record through telescopes. Under this logic, we have here decided to separate Galactic Science from Astronomy as well. Arguably these three sciences could remain within Astrophysics but doing so would make astrophysics far too cumbersome. The Library of Congress and Dewey Decimal System have a major classification "Descriptive Astromomy" which they decided to use instead of placing descriptive works into their huge "Geography" collections. We will follow that logic somewhat here.

Astronomical Methods / Astronomy


Astronomical methods are the equipment and techniques used to collect data about the objects in Space. Galileos first astronomical method was to find and buy the best telescope of the time and then point that telescope to the heavens. Electromagnetic spectrum electromagnetic spectrum Astronomy

Radio astronomyRadio astronomy includes radio telescopes; a device that recieves and records radio waves from outside the Earth, cosmic microwave background radiation, Big Bang telescopes, Pulsars Telescopes and others

Infrared Astronomy Infrared Astronomy telescopes

Optical astronomy Optical astronomy is the oldest kind of astronomy and includes optical telescopes,    Telescopes, charge-coupled device,  spectroscope, adaptive optics, redshifted light Telescopes and others.

Ultraviolet Astronomy Ultraviolet Astronomy

X-ray astronomy X-ray Astronomy includes Chandra X-ray Observatory.

gamma ray astronomy gamma ray Astronomy includes Compton Gamma Ray Observatory, Cosmic ray, High Energy Bodies, binary pulsars, black holes, magnetars,

Neutrino astronomy Neutrino astronomy Neutrino observatories have also been built, primarily to study our Sun.

gravitational wave gravitational wave observatories

space telescope space telescope, a telescope orbiting or travelling from the Earth, RXTE, Long Exposure Time Astronomy, millisecond pulsar, pulsar decelerationstudies, Spectroscopy,

Astronomy teaching tools, Planetarium,

Further information can be found at Library of Congress Classification QB1-139 General Astronomy (Dewey 520), QB140-237 Practical and spherical astronomy (Dewey 522), (Observatories Dewey 522), QB468-480 Non-optical methods of astronomy

Descriptive Astronomy
Galileos second astronomical method was to describe what he saw in the telescope. Descriptive Astronomy is the highest sub category of Astronomy used by the Library of Congress and Dewey Decimal systems to classify any knowledge related to describing celestial objects. Because we are seeing today portions of the Universe as they actually looked millions or billions of years ago we should have a historical section within Descriptive astronomy: History of The Universe includes (Size Shape and Structure of The Historical Universe), Cartography of The Historical Universe, Early Universe and others. The Current Universe includes Size Shape and Structure of The Current Universe, Cartography of the Current Universe and others.

Cartography of Space Bodies. Recording photograhic or similar images of the Earths surface from space is a well developed science, yet still expanding because of advances in the actual resolution of images taken from space or atmosphere and because of advances in digitizing and manipulating the images. Most of these advances are being applied to the cartography of space-located bodies, even though aquiring the original images of those bodies is extremely complicated and expensive, usually requiring long distance probes to carry the cameras. Further information is available at Library of Congress Classification: G3190-3191 Celestial maps.

Visible matter in the universe is apparently organized geographically into structures with large amounts of space between them; either the space between planets, the space between stars or the space between galaxies. Even galaxies themselves are not spread uniformly but appear to be located in filaments. Therefore The Universe can be divided geographically into regions that follow this structure The Filaments of Galaxies are furthest visible structures.

Our Supercluster: Those filaments are made of Superclusters of Galaxies superclusters, tending to line up in filaments. Our Milky Way Galaxy is a galaxy in what is called the Our Supercluster of Galaxies by the National Geographic Society. Some 150 million light-years across, our Supercluster is a great aggregation of perhaps thousands of smaller clusters of galaxies. The largest of these smaller clusters is called the Virgo Cluster. According to National Geographic, The Virgo Cluster contains the center of mass of our Supercluster. Although the The Milky Way Galaxy is a part of Our Supercluster, it is not a part of the Virgo Cluster. Our Milky Way Galaxy is part of a cluster called the Local Group. Gravitationally, our Local Group plays a small role in Our Supercluster because it is a small and distant cluster from the center. A much larger cluster within in Our Supercluster is the Ursa Major Cluster. The following objects are located within Our Supercluster but not within the Local Group; they are objects 100,000,000 light-years to 10,000,000 light-years from the Sun: M49, M51, M58, M59, M60, M61, M63, M64, M65, M66. National Geographic has produced a very good drawing of this region in its Map of the Universe Supplement, October 1999 issue.

Local Group: Our Milky Way Galaxy is one of about 30 galaxies called the Local Group. The Local Group is about 4 million light-years across. In the Local Group our Milky Way Galaxy plays a large gravitational part because our galaxy is the second largest galaxy in our Local Group, second only to the Andromeda Galaxy. All of the other galaxies in our Local Group are gravitationally bound either to the Andromeda Galaxy or to our Milky Way Galaxy. Inside our local group but outside our Galaxy are objects 4,000,000 LY to 1,000,000 LY from the Sun: M31, M32, M33.



Milky Way Galaxy: Our Milky Way Galaxy is a massive mass-containing structure 100,000 light-years across and 30,000 light years tall. Most of its billions of suns are organized into approximately 12 structures called "arms". Our Sun is located in what is called the "Orion Arm". The next arm outside of us is called the "Perseus Arm". The Crab Nebula M1 is located in the Perseus Arm. The arm outside the Perseus Arm is called the Outer Arm. Palomar 1 is located in the Outer Arm. The next arm inside of us is called the Satittarius Arm. The Ring Nebula M57 and the Carina Nebula (NGC 3372) are located in the Sagittarius Arm. The next arm inside of the Sagittarius Arm is called the Crux Arm, although the inner arms are much shorter, obviously from being shifted by gravitational forces. Arms beside each other today may have at an earlier time been one.

Orion Arm: The Orion Nebula M42 is located in our Arm. Celestial Objects 1000 LY to 100 LY from the Sun: M39, M44, M45, Celestial Objects 100 LY to 16LY From the Sun. Celestial Objects less than 16 LY from the Sun: List of Nearest Stars

Nearby-Stars Solar Systems: By measuring the extremely small movements of nearby stars astronomers have been able to prove that there are planets going around these Suns, therefore these suns have become "Solar Systems".

The Solar System includes Solar system andScientific Study of Venus, Venus, Scientific Study of Mercury And Its Moons includes Mercury, Scientific Study of Saturn And Its Moons includes Saturn, Jupiter And Its Moons includes Jupiter, Uranus includes Uranus, Neptune includes Neptune, Scientific Study of Mars and Its Moons includes Mars, Lunar Science includes Moon

Further reading can be found in the Library of Congress Classification QB495-903 Descriptive astronomy (Dewey 523)

Physics Of The Universe / Astrophysics


After first looking at the planets, then second describing what he saw, Galileos third astronomical method was to theorize about the reasons for what he saw in the telescope, specifically to theorize that the Earth goes around the Sun. The Physics of the Universe can be divided into several broad categories:

Astrophyscial Theory including String Theory|String and [General Relativity] and others.

Astrophysical Processes includes baryonic and others.

Physical Processes, General includes Mechanics, Electromagnetism,electromagnetic forces, Statistical Mechanics, Thermodynamics, Quantum Mechanics, Relativity, gravity and others.

Origins Of The Universe Universe Theories of the Origins of the Universe,           Big Bang Theory, Early Universe, Evidence, Cosmic Microwave Background, Dark Ages, Interstellar Medium ,  voids, Filaments of Galaxies, galaxy clusters and others.

Astrophysical Plasma includes plasma amd quasineutrality and others

Cosmic Plasmas Between Stars, (Diffuse Plasmas) includes intergalactic space,       intergalactic medium, interstellar medium, interplanetary medium, interstellar space,  heliospheric current sheet, interplanetary medium, Solar wind and others.

Cosmic Plasmas Inside Stars, (Dense Plasma) includes Stars, plasma physicists, active galactic nuclei, fusion power, magnetohydrodynamic, X-rays, bremsstrahlung, Cosmology , reionized, ambipolar diffusion, Particle Physics and others.

Further information can be found at Library of Congress Classification QB460-466 Astrophysics, QB349-421 Theoretical astronomy and celestial mechanics, and QB980-991 Cosmogony. Cosmology (PHYSICAL COSMOLOGY ONLY), (Dewey "Theoretical Astronomy" 521)

Galactic science


Physics can explain the underlying physical science of any galaxy, yet many aspects of Galaxies are not best described through their physics. Galactic physical science is the general term for ALL physical sciences that can be applied to any galaxy in the Universe or to a particular galaxy.

Galaxy Formation and Evolution including Galaxies, elliptical galaxies Giant Galaxies,  Spiral Galaxies,  M31 The Andromeda Galaxy

Intra-Galaxy Processes, Generalincluding Black Hole, Globular Clusters,      Satellite Galaxy,  Retrograde Rotation, Halo stars,  High Velocity Clouds, Monoceros Ring, accretion disc,  Gravitation,     Angular Momentum, Centripetal force, tidal effects,  Viscosity,    orbital momentum, Accretion disk, Active galactic nuclei, Protoplanetary discs,  Gamma ray bursts  and others. Milky Way Galactic Physical Science is the overall science containing all the physical sciences related directly to the Milky Way Galaxy: Halo stars, Milky Way High Velocity Clouds,  Milky Way Monoceros Ring, Milky Way accretion disc, Milky Way Gravitation,  Milky Way Angular Momentum, Milky Way Centripetal force, Milky Way tidal effects, Milky Way Viscosity, Milky Way orbital momentum, Milky Way event horizon, Milky Way black hole and others.

Stellar science
Physics is the underlying physical science of any sun, yet many aspects of suns are not best described through their physics. Stellar science is the general term for ALL physical sciences that can be applied to any sun in the Univesrse or to a particular sun. Solar science of the Sun Sun is the overall science containing all of the physical sciences related directly to our local Sun.

Stellar-Processes, General Stellar_dynamics, stars, Stellar Evolution, event horizon, black hole, x-rays, nuclear fusion  and others. In astronomy, stellar evolution is the sequence of changes that a star undergoes during its lifetime; the hundreds of thousands, millions or billions of years during which it emits light and heat. Over the course of that time, the star will change radically.

Stellar evolution is not studied by observing the life cycle of a single star&mdash;most stellar changes occur too slowly to be detected even over many centuries. Instead, astrophysicists come to understand how stars evolve by observing numerous stars, each at a different point in its life cycle, and simulating stellar structure with computer models.

Birth of stars is discussed in Main article: Star Formation

Stellar evolution begins with a giant molecular cloud (GMC), also known as a stellar nursery. Most of the 'empty' space inside a galaxy actually contains around 0.1 to 1 particle per cm³, but inside a GMC, the typical density is a few million particles per cm³. A GMC contains 100,000 to 10,000,000 times as much mass as our Sun by virtue of its size: 50 to 300 light years across.

Very small protostars never reach temperatures high enough for nuclear fusion of hydrogen to begin; these are brown dwarfs of less than 0.1 solar mass. Brown dwarfs heavier than 13 Jupiter masses ($$M_J$$) do fuse deuterium, and some astronomers prefer to call only these objects brown dwarfs, classifying anything larger than a planet but smaller than this a sub-stellar object. Both types, deuterium-burning or not, shine dimly and die away slowly, cooling gradually over hundreds of millions of years. The central temperature in more massive protostars, however, will eventually reach 10 megakelvins, at which point hydrogen begins to fuse by way of the proton-proton chain reaction to deuterium and then to helium. The onset of nuclear fusion leads over a relatively short time to a hydrostatic equilibrium in which energy released by the core prevents further gravitational collapse. The star thus evolves rapidly to a stable state.

New stars come in a variety of sizes and colors. They range in spectral type from hot and blue to cool and red, and in mass from less than 0.5 to more than 20 solar masses. The brightness and color of a star depend on its surface temperature, which in turn depends on its mass.

A new star will fall at a specific point on the main sequence of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram. Small, cool red dwarfs burn hydrogen slowly and may remain on the main sequence for hundreds of billions of years, while massive hot supergiants will leave the main sequence after just a few million years. A mid-sized star like the Sun will remain on the main sequence for about 10 billion years. The Sun is thought to be in the middle of its lifespan; thus, it is on the main sequence. Once a star expends most of the hydrogen in its core, it moves off the main sequence.

MaturityA fter millions to billions of years, depending on its initial mass, the continuous fusion of hydrogen into helium will cause a build-up of helium in the core.

The later years and death of stars

Low-mass star Some stars may fuse helium in core hot-spots, causing an unstable and uneven reaction as well as a heavy solar wind. In this case, the star will form no planetary nebula but simply evaporate, leaving little more than a brown dwarf. But a star of less than about 0.5 solar mass will never be able to fuse helium even after the core ceases hydrogen fusion. There simply is not a stellar envelope massive enough to bear down enough pressure on the core. These are the red dwarfs, such as Proxima Centauri, some of which will live thousands of times longer than the Sun. Recent astrophysical models suggest that red dwarfs of 0.1 solar masses may stay on the main sequence for almost six trillion years, and take several hundred billion more to slowly collapse into a white dwarf.(S&T, 22)

Mid-sized stars Once a medium-size star (between 0.4 and 3.4 solar masses) has reached the red giant phase, its outer layers continue to expand, the core contracts inward, and helium begins to fuse into carbon. In stars of less than 1.4 solar masses, the helium fusion process begins with an explosive burst of energy generation known as a helium flash.

Helium burning reactions are extremely sensitive to temperature, which causes great instability. Huge pulsations build up, which eventually give the outer layers of the star enough kinetic energy to be ejected as a planetary nebula. At the center of the nebula remains the core of the star, which cools down to become a small but dense white dwarf, typically weighing about 0.6 solar masses, but only the volume of the Earth.

White dwarfs Main article: white dwarfs White dwarfs are stable because the inward pull of gravity is balanced by the degeneracy pressure of the star's electrons. (This is a consequence of the Pauli exclusion principle.) With no fuel left to burn, the star radiates its remaining heat into space for thousands of millions of years. In the end, all that remains is a cold dark mass sometimes called a black dwarf. However, the universe is not old enough for any black dwarf stars to exist.

Supermassive stars After the outer layers of a star greater than five solar masses have swollen into a gigantic red supergiant, the core begins to yield to gravity and starts to shrink. As it shrinks, it grows hotter and denser, and a new series of nuclear reactions begin to occur. These reactions fuse progressively heavier elements, temporarily halting the collapse of the core.

Neutron stars Main article: neutron star It is known that in some supernovae, the intense gravity inside the supergiant forces the electrons into the atomic nuclei, where they combine with the protons to form neutrons. The electromagnetic forces keeping separate nuclei apart are gone (proportionally, if nuclei were the size of dust motes, atoms would be as large as football stadiums), and the entire core of the star becomes nothing but a dense ball of contiguous neutrons or a single atomic nucleus.

Black holes Main article: black holes It is widely believed that not all supernovae form neutron stars. If the stellar mass is high enough, the neutrons themselves will be crushed and the star will collapse until its radius is smaller than the Schwarzschild radius. The star has then become a black hole.

Non-Earth Planetary Science


Planetary Processes, General including Planetary science, Planets, Comets, Asteroids,

Geophysics, the study of the earth by quantitative physical methods, especially by seismic, electromagnetic, and radioactivity methods, therefore Planetary Geophysics the study of the planets by quantitative physical methods, especially by seismic, electromagnetic, and radioactivity methods. It includes the branches of: Seismology (earthquakes and elastic waves), gravity and geodesy (the earth's gravitational field and the size and form of the earth) [Tectonophysics]] (geological processes in the planets), Geodesy, Mineral Physics. Geophysics can be both a part of physics and a part of Geology.

Geodesy of The Solar System, also called geodetics of the solar system, is the scientific discipline that deals with the measurement and representation of the planets of the Solar System, their gravitational fields and geodynamic phenomena (polar motion, in three-dimensional, time-varying space. The science of geodesy has elements of both Astrophysics and Planetary Sciences. The shape of the planets are to a large extent the result of their rotation, which causes equatorial bulge, and the competition of geologic processes such as the collision of plates and of vulcanism, resisted by the earth's gravity field. This applies to the solid surface (orogeny; few mountains are higher than 10 km, few deep sea trenches deeper than that.) Quite simply, a mountain as tall as, for example, 15 km, would develop so much pressure at its base, due to gravity, that the rock there would become plastic, and the mountain would slump back to a height of roughly 10 km in a geologically insignificant time. (On Mars, whose surface gravity is much less, the largest volcano, Olympus Mons, is 27 km high at its peak, a height that could not be maintained on Earth.) Gravity similarly affects the liquid surface (dynamic sea surface topography) and the earth's atmosphere. For this reason, the study of the Earth's gravity field is seen as a part of geodesy, called physical geodesy. The Earth geoid is essentially the figure of the Earth abstracted from its topographic features. so The Marsgeoid is essentially the figure of Mars abstracted from its topographic features. In surveying and mapping are two important fields of application of geodesy. Physics is the underlying physical science of any planet, yet many aspects of planets are not best described through their physics. Planetary science is the general term for ALL physical sciences that can be applied to planets in the Univesrse or else to a particular planet. Planetary science of the Earth is the overall physical science containing all the physical sciences related directly to our Earth. Planetary Science can be broadly divided into several major sciences: Geology, Oceanogrpahy and Atmospheres. Geology of Other Planets Planetary geology (sometimes known as Astrogeology) refers to the application of geologic principles to other bodies of the solar system. However, specialised terms such as selenology (studies of the Moon), areology (of Mars), etc., are also in use. Most of the geological sciences related to the Earth can be directly applied to the study of non-Earth planets: Geology Fields or related disciplines Structural geology, Geomorphology.]], Economic geology, Mining geology, Geodetics, Geomorphology, Geophysics, Historical geology, Hydrogeology or geohydrology, Mineralogy, Paleoclimatology, Sedimentology, Seismology, Stratigraphy, Structural geology, Volcanology,Hydrology. Geothermometry (heating of the earth, heat flow, volcanology, and hot springs), Hydrology (ground and surface water, sometimes including glaciology).

Regional planetary geology contains Geology of Mercury, Geology of Venus, Geology of the Moon Geology of Mars, Geology of Jupiter,Geology of Saturn, Geology of Uranus Geology of Neptune, Geology of Pluto

Atmosphere of Other Planets / Extrasolar Atmosphere refers to the application of meteorological principles to other bodies of the solar system including the application of: Atmospheric electricity and terrestrial magnetism (including ionosphere, Van Allen belts, telluric currents, Radiant energy, etc.), Meteorology and Climatology. Aeronomy the study of the physical structure and chemistry of the atmosphere. Atmosphere of Planets of The Solar Systemincludes http://www.astronomy.org/astronomy-survival/outer.html  Mars Atmosphere includes Mars Atmosphere, Venus Atmosphere. Jupiter Atmosphere Jupiter Atmosphere[Great Red Spot Great Red Spot]       http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/galileo/mess44/promysso.html, Atmosphere on Jupiters-Moons, Atmosphere on Saturn  http://www.nasm.si.edu/ceps/rpif/saturn/saturn.html http://www.physics.purdue.edu/astr263l/SStour/saturn.html        http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/s872839.htm. Atmosphere on Urnaus http://www.physics.purdue.edu/astr263l/SStour/uranus.html

Biology of Other Planets / Extrasolar Biology / Exobiology / Extraterrestrial Life
Earth telescopes can resolve some surface features of the nearby planets and so far, no life can be seen through the telescopes. However Earth telescopes cannot resolve the surface features of any planet outside the solar system, so the search for life on other planets continues. While no incontestable evidence has been found for life outside of Earth, the scientific study of the theoretical basis for life on other bodies is progressing. Some scientists are trying to theorize which kinds of stars would have planets that hold life. Because life has overall fragile parameters for survival the general consensus is that only older stars would have planets circling them with life. From this they theorize which sections of our Milky Way Galaxy would most likely hold life. Other scientists theorize the quantity of civilizations that might exist in a galaxy and others are actully listening for the possible radio chatter of extraterrestrial technical civilizations. These sub-sciences of exobilogy can be categorized as follows:

Habitable Zone Astrobiology  is discussed in Galactic Habitable Zone and Solar System Habitable Zone.

Astrobiochemistry Exogenesis Most scientists hold that if extraterrestrial life exists, its evolution would have occurred independently in different places in the universe. An alternative hypothesis, held by a minority, is panspermia, which suggests that life in the universe could have stemmed from a smaller number of points of origin, and then spread across the universe, from habitable planet to habitable planet. These two hypotheses are not mutually exclusive. Alternative biochemistry includes Alternative Carbon Biochemistry where water is not the Solvent of Carbon Chains: Life forms based in ammonia rather than water are also considered, though this solution appears less optimal than water. Also included is Alternative Non-Carbon Biochemistry: Non-carbon based chemistry Silicon is usually considered the most likely alternative to carbon, though this remains improbable. Silicon life forms are proposed to have a crystalline morphology, and are theorized to be able to exist in high temperatures, such as planets closer to the sun.

Astrobiosphere is the entire area of a planet that supports life and includes Biosphere, Theory of Biosphere, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_habitability Planetary Habitability Extrasolar planets Astronomers also search for extrasolar planets that would be conducive to life, especially those like OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb which have been found to have Earth-like qualities.

Plants On Other Planets includes Extremophiles,      Theoretical Astrobotany, Life On Jupiter, [Life on Mars scientific theory],  Independently in 1996 structures resembling bacteria were reportedly discovered in a meteorite, ALH84001, thought to be formed of rock ejected from Mars. This report is also controversial and scientific debate continues. (See Viking biological experiments.) Humanoids-On-Other-Planetsincludes Humanoids-On-Other-Planets Origins- Speculations And Scientific Theory Panspermia. Extraterrestrial life along with the biochemical basis of extraterrestrial life, there remains a broader consideration of evolution and  morphology.

Humanoids-On-Other-Planets Technical Civilizations includes Humanoids-On-Other-Planets Technical-Civilizations, Speculation And Theory Astrosociobiology

Humanoids-On-Other-Planets Technical-Civilizations, Migrations Most scientists hold that if extraterrestrial life exists, its evolution would have occurred independently in different places in the universe. An alternative hypothesis, held by a minority, is panspermia, which suggests that life in the universe could have stemmed from a smaller number of points of origin, and then spread across the universe, from habitable planet to habitable planet.

Humanoids-On-Other-Planets Technical-Civilizations, Quantity of Drake Equation

Humanoids-On-Other-Planets-Civilizations On Local Stars includes Search For Humanoids-On-Other-Planets-Civlizations On Local-Stars, SETI

Space Exploration Through Space Travel


Astronomy is exploration of space through instruments based on Earth. Space Exploration through space travel is exploration of space by travel through it, either in person or by drone. Closely associated with Space travel is Space Station, either manned or unmanned. All man-made satellites are a form of unmanned or manned space stations.

Unmanned Space travel includes the sciences of Spacecraft Propulsion, Rocket launch technology, Rocket, Astrodynamics, Unmanned space missions, and others.

Manned Space travel further includes the sciences of Microgravity environment, Space transport, Manned space missions, Interplanetary travel, Interstellar Travel and Generation ship.

Unmanned Space Station

There are Astronomical satellites, Biosatellites, Communications satellites, Miniaturized satellites, Navigation satellites, Reconnaissance satellites, Earth observation satellites, communications satellites, Earth observation satellites and others. There are many different kinds of orbits possible for these devices.

Manned Space Station includes the sciences of Space Station and Floating cities.

Further information can be found at Library of Congress Classifications TL787-4050 Astronautics, TL780-785.8 Rocket propulsion, TL787-4050 Space travel.

Space Colonization
Space colonization is a colossal science that includes all of the scientific disciplines needed to be able to build colonies on non-Earth planets and planetoids.

Space Colonization Justification includes the sciences of Space and survival.

Space Colony Research And Development Man can practice living on other worlds by building permanently inhabitable cities in extremely hostile environments of the Earth: The poles and the deserts. This is discussed in the articles Biosphere 2 and BIOS-3. Currently manned Earth hostile-enviornment stations include Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station, Devon Island, Mars Arctic Research Station, Mars Desert Research Station, climate, underwater structures for planets with oceans or very heavy atmospheres and others.

Space Colony Location is the science of figuring out the best planets and the best locations on those planets for colonization. Because water is such a necessity for human survival most searches are for locations close to some kind of water. These issues and other related issues are discussed in the articles Colonization of Mars, Mars Society, Colonization of Mercury,  Colonization of Venus,  Venusian terraforming, Colonization of the Moon,  Artemis Project, Europa, Phobos, Colonization of the asteroids and others.

Space Colonization Habitat science includes Space habitat, Human adaptation to space, Manmade closed ecological system, Planetary habitability,  Domed city,  Ocean colonization, Underground city and other sub-sciences. Further reading is available at Space Industrialization Dewy 629.44.

Space Colonization Health (Space Medicine Dewey 616.9)

Space Colonization Agricultureincludes Biosphere 2 and BIOS-3 and others.

Space Colonization Food Processing includes Space food and others.

Space Colonization Housing includes International Space Station).

Space Colonization Clothing includes Space suits

Space Colonization Construction includes Orbital Megastructures, station-keeping, Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station, Devon Island, Mars Arctic Research Station, Mars Desert Research Station, climate, underwater structures for planets with oceans or very heavy atmospheres and others.

Space Colonization Transportation includes Lunar rover

Space Colonization Materials includes Recycling

Space Colonization Energy includes Renewable energy

Space Colonization General Manufacturing includes Space Manufacturing

Space Colonization Economics includes Space Frontier Foundation, Private spaceflight and space tourism, solar power satellites, Asteroid mining,  space manufacturing,

Space Colonization Operations includes space agencies, Space advocacy, Colonize the Cosmos, Artemis Project, National Space Society,     Planetary Society,  robotic exploration , search for extraterrestrial life, Space Settlement Institute, Students for the Exploration and Development of Space, NASA, ESA, Project Constellation

'Space Colonization Law and Protection includes Space Law

Space Defense
Space Defense is the science of defending the Earth from natural or unnatural threats from Space. Natural threats include Near Earth Asteroids and similar. Other issues are discussed in Missile Defense Command, United States Army Space and Missile Defense Command, Department of Defense Manned Space Flight Support Office, European Aeronautic Defense & Space and Joint Defense Space Research Facility.

Further information can be found at Library of Congress Classifications UG1500-1530 Military astronautics, 0UG1500-1530 space warfare, (Dewey 358).

Aeronautics
Aeronautics. Because the atmosphere is attached to the surface of the Earth, some argue that aeronautics is not a part of Space Science. Further information can be found at Library of Congress Classifications TL500-777 Aeronautics. (Dewey 629.4)

Air Forces. Further information can be found at Library of Congress Classifications UG622-1435 Air forces, Air warfare; UG633-635 by region or country

References and notes

 * "Why the Smallest Stars Stay Small." Sky & Telescope Nov. 1997: 22.

Solar Hydrogen
Solar Hydrogen is a branch of the science of Solar Energy where sunlight is used either directly or indirectly to create hydrogen gas for use as energy. This science can be divided into several sub-sciences depending on which route is taken to derive hydrogen gas from sunlight: 1) Hydrogen gas can come from the electrolysis of water where the electrical source is solar electricity, derived from from hydroelectric, wind, photovoltaic or solarthermal, or biomass conversion. 2) Hydrogen gas can come from the very high temperature decoupling of water into hydrogen and oxygen if that very high temperature is generated by mirrors in a solar tower. 3) Hydrogen gas can come from Multijunction cell technology for photoelectrochemical (PEC) light harvesting that produces electricity from sunlight without the expense and complication of electrolyzers. 4)Certain photosynthetic microbes produce hydrogen from water in their metabolic activities. 5)Hydrogen can be produced via pyrolysis or gasification of biomass resources.

Advantages of Solar Hydrogen over Solar Electricity
Solar hydrogen has the advantage over solar electricity of being a gas, which makes it possibly transportable. Making hydrogen gas into a transportable liquid is not difficult for todays level of technical development and many methods have been invented, developed, tested and put on the market in a variety of applications. The disadvantage of solar hydrogen is that it usually must be derived from solar electriciy, creating a significant loss in overall efficiency. For this reason, a strong case can be made for electrifying any stationary application efficiently reachable by power lines, or simply converting existing fossil fuel power plants in sunny areas to solar electric plants. Electrified rails powered by solar electricity is an example of solar power applied to a transportation system. Hydrail (Hydrogen gas powered locomotives) are the Solar alternative to this as long as the hydrogen gas powering the locomotives is generated from sunlight.

Sunlight> Hydroelectric or PV or Solarthermal or Biomass > Electricity> Electrolysis > Hydrogen
The currently most available way to convert sunlight to hydrogen is to generate solar electricity from hydroelectric, wind, photovoltaic or solarthermal and then use that electricity as the source for the electrolysis of water. Many industrial electrolysis cells are very similar to Hofmann voltameters, with complex platinum plates or honeycombs as electrodes. Hydrogen gas is usually created, collected, and burned on the premises, as its energy density per volume is too low to make transporting or storing it economically feasible. Oxygen gas is treated as a byproduct.

Three generations of development The most common configuration of this device, the first generation photovoltaic, consists of a large-area, single layer p-n junction diode, which is capable of generating usable electrical energy from light sources with the wavelengths of solar light. These cells are typically made using silicon. However, successive generations of photovoltaic cells are currently being developed that may improve the photoconversion efficiency for future photovoltaics. The second generation of photovoltaic materials is based on multiple layers of p-n junction diodes. Each layer is designed to absorb a successively longer wavelength of light (lower energy), thus absorbing more of the solar spectrum and increasing the amount of electrical energy produced. The third generation of photovoltaics is very different from the other two, and is broadly defined as a semiconductor device which does not rely on a traditional p-n junction to separate photogenerated charge carriers. These new devices include dye sensitized cells, organic polymer cells, and quantum dot solar cells.



One important use of electrolysis is to produce hydrogen gas. The reaction that occurs is


 * 2H 2 O (aq) &rarr; 2H 2(g) + O 2(g)

This has been suggested as a way of shifting society towards using hydrogen as an energy carrier for powering electric motors and internal combustion engines. (See hydrogen economy.)

The energy efficiency of water electrolysis varies widely. The efficiency is a measure of what fraction of electrical energy used is actually contained within the hydrogen. Some of the electrical energy is converted to heat, a useless by-product. Some reports quote efficiencies between 50–70% This efficiency is based on the Lower Heating Value of Hydrogen. The Lower Heating Value of Hydrogen is thermal energy released when Hydrogen is combusted. This does not represent the total amount of energy within the Hydrogen, hence the efficiency is lower than a more strict definition. Other reports quote the theoretical maximum efficiency of electrolysis. The theoretical maximum efficiency is between 80–94%.. The theoretical maximum considers the total amount of energy absorbed by both the hydrogen and oxygen. These values only refer to the efficiency of converting electrical energy into hydrogen's chemical energy. The energy lost in generating the electricity is not included. For instance, when considering a power plant that converts the heat of nuclear reactions into hydrogen via electrolysis, the total efficiency is more like 25–40%.

Electrolysis of water is an electrolytic process which decomposes water into oxygen and hydrogen gas with the aid of an electric current, where a power source from a 6 volt battery is commonly used. The electrolysis cell consists of two electrodes (usually an inert metal such as platinum) submerged in an electrolyte and connected to opposite poles of a source of direct current. Many industrial electrolysis cells are very similar to Hofmann voltameters, with complex platinum plates or honeycombs as electrodes. Hydrogen gas is usually created, collected, and burned on the premises, as its energy density per volume is too low to make transporting or storing it economically feasible. Oxygen gas is treated as a byproduct.

High-temperature electrolysis (also HTE or steam electrolysis) is a method currently being investigated for water electrolysis with a heat engine. High temperature electrolysis is more efficient than traditional room-temperature electrolysis because some of the energy is supplied as heat, which is cheaper than electricity, and because the electrolysis reaction is more efficient at higher temperatures. This method should not be confused with very high temperature water splitting.

Applications

About four percent of hydrogen gas produced worldwide is created by electrolysis, and normally used onsite. Hydrogen is used for the creation of ammonia for fertilizer via the Haber process, and converting heavy petroleum sources to lighter fractions via hydrocracking. There is some speculation about future development of hydrogen as an energy carrier.

Efficiency

The energy efficiency of water electrolysis varies widely. Some report 50–70%, while others report 80–94%. These values refer only to the efficiency of converting electrical energy into hydrogen's chemical energy. The energy lost in generating the electricity is not included. For instance, when considering a power plant that converts the heat of nuclear reactions into hydrogen via electrolysis, the total efficiency is more like 25–40%.

NREL is testing integrated electrolysis systems and investigating options for improved designs that will lower capital costs and improve performance for intermittent electrolysis. This project is carried out in collaboration with other DOE offices including the Wind & Hydropower, Distributed Energy & Electric Reliability, and Biomass Programs.

Sunlight> SolarThermal Power> High Temperature Decoupling > Hydrogen
Using outside mirrors placed in arrays, refelecting the suns rays to central receiving tower (Solar Tower); that concentrated solar energy can be used to generate temperatures of over 2,000 degrees at which thermochemical reaction cycles can be used to produce hydrogen without the intervention of electrolysis.

references: Jaimee Dahl et al., High Temperature Solar Splitting of Methane to Hydrogen and Carbon, (2003) (PDF 696 KB) Jaimee Dahl et al., Rapid Solar-thermal Dissociation of Natural Gas in an Aerosol Flow Reactor, (2002) (PDF 428 KB)

Sunlight> Photo electrochemical> Hydrogen
Multijunction cell technology developed by the Photovoltaic industry is being used for photoelectrochemical (PEC) light harvesting systems that generate sufficient voltage to split water and are stable in a water/electrolyte environment. PEC system produces electricity from sunlight without the expense and complication of electrolyzers,

references: John Turner, Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting, (2003) (PDF 1.19 MB) K. Varner et al., Photoelectrochemical Systems for Hydrogen Production, (2002) (PDF 724 KB)

Sunlight> Biological Organisms> Hydrogen
Certain photosynthetic microbes use water to produce hydrogen gas in their metabolism. Photobiological technology has good possibilities, but because oxygen is produced along with the hydrogen, the technology must overcome the limitation of oxygen sensitivity of the enzyme systems.

references: Maria Ghirardi and Michael Seibert, Algal Hydrogen Photoproduction, (2003) (PDF 645 KB) Michael Seibert et al., Molecular Engineering of Algal Hydrogen Production, (2002) (PDF 741 KB) Maria Ghirardi et al., Cyclic Photobiological Algal Hydrogen Production, (2002) (PDF 303 KB)

Sunlight> Biomass > Pyrolysis> Hydrogen
Hydrogen can be produced via pyrolysis or gasification of biomass resources.

references: Kimberly Magrini-Bair et al., Fluidizable Catalysts for Hydrogen Production from Biomass Pyrolysis/Steam Reforming, (2003) (PDF 1 MB) Kimberly Magrini-Bair et al., Fluidizable Catalysts for Producing Hydrogen by Steam Reforming Biomass Pyrolysis Liquids, (2002) (PDF 751 KB} Stefan Czernik , Hydrogen from Post-Consumer Residues, (2003) (PDF 922 KB) Stefan Czernik et al., Hydrogen Production from Post-Consumer Wastes, (2002) (PDF 387 KB) Robert J. Evans, Hydrogen from Biomass-Catalytic Reforming of Pyrolysis Vapors, (2003) (PDF 1.93 MB) Robert J. Evans et al., Engineering Scale Up of Renewable H2 Production by Catalytic Steam Reforming of Peanut Shells Pyrolysis Products,  (2002) (PDF 531 KB)

The invasions tradition
The Mythological Cycle traces the supposed history of Ireland from its earliest inhabitants before the Biblical flood, through a series of invasions to the arrival of the Goidelic-speaking Milesians or Gaels. Some of these invaders probably represent genuine historical migrations; others, like the Tuatha Dé Danann with their magical powers, are unquestionably degraded gods.

Before the flood
The first inhabitants of Ireland were led by Cessair, a granddaughter of Noah for whom there was no room on the Ark. She and her followers arrived only 40 days before the deluge and were wiped out, all except Fintan, who transformed into a salmon. Through a series of transformations he survived into historical times and told the tale of his people.

Céitinn records a tradition from the lost 8th century Book of Druimm Snechta that Banba was the first inhabitant of Ireland before the flood, but she is more usually associated with the Tuatha Dé Danann.

Partholon (3rd Millenium BC?)
Three hundred years after the flood a new wave of invaders arrived, led by Partholon, a Scythian who had been exiled after killing his parents. In those days in Ireland there were only three lakes, nine rivers and one plain. During his time seven lakes burst from the ground, and he cleared four plains. He brought the first cattle to Ireland.

Three years after he arrived Partholon won a battle against the Fomorians, led by Cichol Gricenchos. The Fomorians, who appear to be the Irish gods of chaos, are unique among the peoples of the Mythological Cycle in that they have no origin - they're just there. However, Céitinn records a tradition that they arrived in Ireland two hundred years before and lived by fishing and fowling - it's possible that this is a memory of Mesolithic hunter-gatherers giving way to Neolithic farmers.

Partholon and his people were wiped out by a plague, all but Tuan mac Cairill, who like Finntan survived through a series of transformations and told their story to St Finnian.

Nemed (Late 3rd Millenium BC?)
After thirty years another Scythian, Nemed, arrived. He fought four battles against the Fomorians, cleared twelve plains and saw four lakes burst, and dug two royal forts. After he died his people were oppressed by Conand and Morc of the Fomorians, having to pay a heavy tribute in produce and children. They rose up against them and destroyed Conand's Tower on Tory Island, off the coast of County Donegal, but as they fought a great battle against Morc the sea rose and drowned them all, except for one ship containing thirty warriors, who left Ireland and scattered to the four corners of the world.

Fir Bolg (2nd Millenium BC?)
The next invaders were the Fir Bolg, who first established kingship and a system of justice in Ireland. One of their kings, Rinnal, was the first to use iron spear-points. They appear to represent a genuine historical people, the Builg or Belgae. They have also been linked with the Basque or proto-Basque people, in that they were "short and dark" and that common traces exist in the genes of modern Irish people.

Tuatha Dé Danann (2nd Millenium BC?)
The Fir Bolg were displaced by the Tuatha Dé Danann or "Peoples of the goddess Danu", descendants of Nemed, who either came to Ireland from the north on dark clouds or burnt their ships on the shore to ensure they wouldn't retreat. They defeated the Fir Bolg king, Eochaid mac Eirc, in the first Battle of Magh Tuiredh, but their own king, Nuada, lost an arm in the battle. As he was no longer physically perfect he lost the kingship, and his replacement, the half-Fomorian Bres, became the first Tuatha Dé High King of Ireland.

Bres turned out to be a tyrant and brought the Tuatha Dé under the oppression of the Fomorians. Eventually Nuada was restored to the kingship, having had his arm replaced by a working one of silver, and the Tuatha Dé rose against the Fomorians in the second Battle of Magh Tuiredh. Nuada was killed by the Fomorian king, Balor, but Balor met his prophesied end at the hands of his grandson, Lug, who became king of the Tuatha Dé.

The Tuatha Dé are undoubtedly degraded gods, and have many parallels across the Celtic world. Nuada is cognate with the British god Nodens; Lug is a reflex of the pan-Celtic deity Lugus; the name of Lug's successor, the Dagda, is explained by the Irish texts as "the good god"; Tuireann is related to the Gaulish Taranis; Ogma to Ogmios; the Badb to Catubodua. Even after they are displaced as the rulers of Ireland, characters such as Lug, the Mórrígan, Aengus and Manannan appear in stories set centuries later, showing all the signs of immortality.

The Tuatha Dé are said to have brought chariots and druidry to Ireland.

The Sons of Míl/ Milesians and (Lugh story)
The Tuatha Dé Danann were themselves displaced by the Milesians, descendants of Míl Espáine, a warrior who travelled the ancient world before settling in Spain. Míl died without ever seeing Ireland, but his uncle Íth saw the island from a tower and led an advance force to scout it out. The three kings of the Tuatha Dé, Mac Cuill, Mac Cecht and Mac Gréine, had Íth killed. After his body was returned to Spain, Míl's eight sons led a full-scale invasion.

After defeating the Tuatha Dé in battle at Slieve Mish, County Kerry, the Milesians met Ériu, Banba and Fodla, the wives of the three kings, each of whom asked them to name the island after her. Ériu is the origin of the modern name Éire, and Banba and Fodla are still used as poetic names for Ireland, much as Albion is for Great Britain.

Mac Cuill, Mac Cecht and Mac Gréine asked for a three-day truce in which the Milesians would stay at anchor nine waves' distance from shore, and the Milesians agreed, but the druids of the Tuatha Dé conjured up a storm to drive them away. However Amergin, son of Míl, calmed the sea with his poetry. The Milesians landed and defeated the Tuatha Dé at Tailtiu, but only three of Míl's sons, Eber Finn, Eremon and Amergin, survived. Amergin divided the land between his two brothers. The Tuatha Dé moved underground, into the sídhe mounds, to be ruled by Bodb Dearg.