User:Ms janetbee/sandbox

Piaget
Original Piaget was a Swiss theorist who posited that children learn actively through the play process. He suggested that the adult's role in helping the child learn was to provide appropriate materials for the child to interact and construct. He would use Socratic questioning to get the children to reflect on what they were doing.[citation needed] He would try to get them to see contradictions in their explanations. He also developed stages of development. His approach can be seen in how the curriculum is sequenced in schools, and in the pedagogy of preschool centers across the United States.[citation needed]

Proposed Changes We proposed changing the original statement because it lacked details that were necessary to explains Piaget’s process. We were also unable to verify the statements made and as a result we added new detailed information in addition to new references.

Revision Piaget was a Swiss scholar who began his studies in intellectual development in the 1920’s. Piaget’s first interests were those that dealt with the ways in which animals adapt to their environments and his first scientific article about this subject was published when he was 10 years old. This eventually led him to pursue a Ph.D. in Zoology, which then led him to his second interest in epistemology.]   Epistemology branches off from philosophy and deals with the origin of knowledge.Piaget’s believed the origin of knowledge came from Psychology, so he traveled to Paris and began working on the first “standardized intelligence test” at Alfred Binet laboratories, this influenced his career greatly. As he carried out this intelligence testing he began developing a profound interest in the way children’s intellectualism works. As a result, he developed his own laboratory and spent years recording children’s intellectual growth and attempted to find out how children develop through various stages of thinking. This led to Piaget develop four important stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor stage (birth to age 2), preoperational stage (age 2 to 7, concrete-operational stage (ages 7 to 12), and formal-operational stage (ages 11 to 12, and thereafter).

Sensorimotor
Original The child learns that he is separate from his environment and that aspects of his environment—his parents or favorite toy—continue to exist even though they may be outside the reach of his senses; this is called object permanence.[citation needed)

Proposed Changes We could not find an appropriate reference site for this sentence so we suggested deleting it and replacing it with the following statement, reference, and example.

Revision According to Piaget, when an infant reaches about 7-9 months of age they begin to develop what he called object permanence, this means the child now has the ability to understand that objects keep existing even when they cannot be seen. An example of this would be hiding the child’s favorite toy under a blanket, although the child cannot physically see it they still know to look under the blanket.

Preoperational
Original Applying his new knowledge of language, the child begins to use symbols to represent objects. Early in this stage he or she also personifies objects.[citation needed] They are now better able to think about things and events that aren't immediately present. Oriented to the present, children have difficulty conceptualizing time.[citation needed] Their thinking is influenced by fantasy—the way they'd like things to be. Children's at this age show egocentrism-they assume that others see situations from his or her viewpoint.[citation needed] They take in information and change it in their mind to fit their ideas. Teaching must take into account the child's vivid fantasies and undeveloped sense of time. Using neutral words, body outlines and equipment a child can touch gives him an active role in learning.[citation needed]

Proposed Changes This section was lacking a significant amount of references that we were unable to verify. As a result new information was found and references have been added.

Revision During this stage of development, young children begin analyzing their environment using mental symbols. These symbols often include words and images and the child will begin to apply these various symbols in their everyday lives as they come across different objects, events, and situations. However, Piaget’s main focus on this stage and the reason why he named it “preoperational” is because children at this point are not able to apply specific cognitive operations, such as mental math. In addition to symbolism, children now begin engaging in pretend play where they begin pretending to be people they are not (teachers, superhero’s), and they may use different props to make this pretend play more real. Some deficiencies in this stage of development are that children who are about 3-4 years old often display what is called egocentrism, which means the child is not able to see someone else’s point of view, they feel as if every other person is experiencing the same events and feelings that they are experiencing. (see “The Three Mountains Task”). However, at about at 7 thought processes of children are no longer egocentric and are more intuitive, meaning they now think about the way something looks instead of rational thinking.

Concrete
Original During this stage, accommodation increases. The child develops an ability to think abstractly and to make rational judgments about concrete or observable phenomena, which in the past he needed to manipulate physically to understand. In teaching this child, giving him the opportunity to ask questions and to explain things back to you allows him to mentally manipulate information.[citation needed]

Proposed Changes This section did not incorporate any references into their explanation, therefore we deleting the entry and rewrote it with the necessary references.

Revised During this stage, children begin developing cognitive operations and begin applying this new thinking to different events they may encounter. Unlike the preoperational stage, children can now change and rearrange mental images and symbols to form a logical thought, an example of this is reversibility in which the child now has the ability to reverse an action just by doing the opposite.

Formal Operations
Original This stage brings cognition to its final form. This person no longer requires concrete objects to make rational judgements. At this point, he is capable of hypothetical and deductive reasoning. Teaching for the adolescent may be wideranging because he'll be able to consider many possibilities from several perspectives.[citation needed]

Proposed Changes We proposed this section lacked a significant amount of detail to explain this stage, in addition to lacking any kind of references. As a result we rewrote the section and added more detail and references.

Formal operations The final stage of Piaget’s cognitive development defines a child as now having the ability to “think more rationally and systematically about abstract concepts and hypothetical events”. Some positive aspects during this time is that child or adolescent begins forming their identity and begin understanding why people behave the way they behave. However, there are also some negative aspects which include the child or adolescent developing some egocentric thoughts which include the imaginary audience and the personal fable. An imaginary audience is when an adolescent feels that the world is just as concerned and judgmental of anything the adolescent does as they are, an adolescent may feel as is they are “on stage” and everyone is a critique and they are the ones being critiqued. A personal fable is when the adolescent feels that he or she is unique person and everything they do is unique. They feel as if they are the only ones that have ever experienced what they are experiencing and that they are invincible and nothing bad will happen to them it will only happen to others.

Vygotsky
Original Vygotsky was a theorist who worked during the first decades of the former Soviet Union.[citation needed]

Proposed Changes We could not verify the original senentecne, therefore we suggested deleting it and adding new information and reference.

Revision Vygotsky was a Russian theorist, who proposed the sociocultural theory. During 1920s-1930s while Piaget was developing his own theory, Vygotsky was an active scholar and at that time his theory was said to be “recent” because it was translated out of Russian language and began influencing Western thinking.

Attachment Theory
Original Attachment theorists consider the human infant to have a need for a relationship with at least one caregiver for normal social and emotional development to occur.[citation needed]

Proposed Changes We proposed changing the original sentence because we could not find where this context was taken from therefore we found new information from a reliable reference and it includes more detailed information.

Revised Bowlby’s observations of close attachments led him to believe that close emotional bonds or “attachments” between an infant and their primary caregiver is an important requirement that is necessary to form “normal social and emotional development”.

What Develops?
Original In addition to acquiring a large spoken vocabulary,[citation needed] there are four main areas in which the child must attain competence, regardless of the language or dialect spoken.[citation needed] These are referred to as phonology or sounds,[citation needed] semantics or the encoded meanings,[citation needed] syntax or the way in which words are combined[citation needed] and pragmatics or knowledge of how language is used in different contexts.[4]

Proposed Changes This section lacks a numerous amount of references, therefore research was done to find appropriate references for this particular section.

Revised In addition to acquiring a large spoken vocabulary,  there are four main areas in which the child must attain competence, regardless of the language or dialect spoken    These are referred to as phonology or sounds,  semantics or the encoded meanings,  syntax or the way in which words are combined  and pragmatics or knowledge of how language is used in different contexts.

Speed and pattern of development
Original Receptive language, the understanding of others' speech, has a gradual development beginning at about 6 months.[citation needed] However, expressive language, the production of words, moves rapidly after its beginning at about a year of age[citation needed], with a "vocabulary explosion"[citation needed] of rapid word acquisition occurring in the middle of the second year.[citation needed] This vocabulary expansion is closely linked to the ability to repeat spoken words and enables the rapid acquisition of skill in their pronunciation.[38][39] Grammatical rules and word combinations appear at about age two.[citation needed] Mastery of vocabulary and grammar continue gradually through the preschool and school years. Adolescents still have smaller vocabularies than adults and experience more difficulty with constructions like the passive voice.[citation needed]

Babies from one month old can produce "ooh" sounds which appear to grow out of pleasurable interactions with caregivers in a mutual "dialogue". According to Stern, this process is communication of affect between adult and infant in a mutual, rhythmic interaction. The attunement and "gaze-coupling" in which infant and adult take different roles is thought to anticipate the give-and-take of later dialogue.[40]

From about 6 to 9 months babies produce more vowels, some consonants and echolalia, or the frequent repetition of sounds like "dadadada" which appear to have some phonetic characteristics of later speech. It is thought that a crucial part of the development of speech is the time caregivers spend "guessing" what their infants are trying to communicate thus integrating the child into their social world.[citation needed] When infants are trying to learn words from others they tend to create protowords, which is a "unique string of phonemes that serve word-like functions."[41] The attribution of intentionality to the infant's utterances has been called "shared memory" and forms a complex series of actions, intentions and actions in response in an improvised way.[4]

It has been argued that children's phonological systems develop in ways that are parallel to adult languages, even if they are using unrecognizable "words".[42] First words have the function of naming or labelling but also condense meaning as in "milk" meaning "I want milk".[citation needed] Vocabulary typically grows from about 20 words at 18 months to around 200 words at 21 months.[citation needed]From around 18 months the child starts to combine words into two word sentences.[citation needed] Typically the adult expands it to clarify meaning. By 24–27 months the child is producing three or four word sentences using a logical, if not strictly correct, syntax.[citation needed] The theory is that children apply a basic set of rules such as adding 's' for plurals or inventing simpler words out of words too complicated to repeat like "choskit" for chocolate biscuit.[citation needed] Following this there is a rapid appearance of grammatical rules and ordering of sentences.[citation needed] There is often an interest in rhyme, and imaginative play frequently includes conversations.[4] Children's recorded monologues give insight into the development of the process of organising information into meaningful units.[43]

By three years the child is beginning to use complex sentences, including relative clauses, although still perfecting various linguistic systems.[citation needed] By five years of age the child's use of language is very similar to that of an adult.[4] From the age of about three children can indicate fantasy or make-believe linguistically, produce coherent personal stories and fictional narrative with beginnings and endings.[4] It is argued that children devise narrative as a way of understanding their own experience and as a medium for communicating their meaning to others.[44] The ability to engage in extended discourse emerges over time from regular conversation with adults and peers. For this the child needs to learn to combine his perspective with that of others and with outside events and learn to use linguistic indicators to show he is doing this.[citation needed] They also learn to adjust their language depending on to whom they are speaking.[citation needed] Typically by the age of about 9 a child can recount other narratives in addition to their own experiences, from the perspectives of the author, the characters in the story and their own views.[45]

Proposed Changes This section lacks a numerous amount of references, therefore research was done to find appropriate references for this particular section. It also contains a few misspelled words.

Revised Receptive language, the understanding of others' speech, has a gradual development beginning at about 6 months. However, expressive language, the production of words, moves rapidly after its beginning at about a year of age, with a "vocabulary explosion" of rapid word acquisition occurring in the middle of the second year. This vocabulary expansion is closely linked to the ability to repeat spoken words and enables the rapid acquisition of skill in their pronunciation. Grammatical rules and word combinations appear at about age two. Mastery of vocabulary and grammar continue gradually through the preschool and school years. Adolescents still have smaller vocabularies than adults and experience more difficulty with constructions like the passive voice.

Babies from one month old can produce "ooh" sounds which appear to grow out of pleasurable interactions with caregivers in a mutual "dialogue". According to Stern, this process is communication of affect between adult and infant in a mutual, rhythmic interaction. The atonement and "gaze-coupling" in which infant and adult take different roles is thought to anticipate the give-and-take of later dialogue.

From about 6 to 9 months babies produce more vowels, some consonants and echolalia, or the frequent repetition of sounds like "dadadada" which appear to have some phonetic characteristics of later speech. It is thought that a crucial part of the development of speech is the time caregivers spend "guessing" what their infants are trying to communicate thus integrating the child into their social world. When infants are trying to learn words from others they tend to create protowords, which is a "unique string of phonemes that serve word-like functions." The attribution of intentionality to the infant's utterances has been called "shared memory" and forms a complex series of actions, intentions and actions in response in an improvised way.

It has been argued that children's phonological systems develop in ways that are parallel to adult languages, even if they are using unrecognizable "words". First words have the function of naming or labeling but also condense meaning as in "milk" meaning "I want milk". Vocabulary typically grows from about 20 words at 18 months to around 200 words at 21 months. From around 18 months the child starts to combine words into two word sentences.[citation needed] Typically the adult expands it to clarify meaning. By 24–27 months the child is producing three or four word sentences using a logical, if not strictly correct, syntax. The theory is that children apply a basic set of rules such as adding 's' for plurals or inventing simpler words out of words too complicated to repeat like "choskit" for chocolate biscuit. Following this there is a rapid appearance of grammatical rules and ordering of sentences. There is often an interest in rhyme, and imaginative play frequently includes conversations. Children's recorded monologues give insight into the development of the process of organizing information into meaningful units.

By three years the child is beginning to use complex sentences, including relative clauses, although still perfecting various linguistic systems. By five years of age the child's use of language is very similar to that of an adult. From the age of about three children can indicate fantasy or make-believe linguistically, produce coherent personal stories and fictional narrative with beginnings and endings. It is argued that children devise narrative as a way of understanding their own experience and as a medium for communicating their meaning to others. The ability to engage in extended discourse emerges over time from regular conversation with adults and peers. For this the child needs to learn to combine his perspective with that of others and with outside events and learn to use linguistic indicators to show he is doing this. They also learn to adjust their language depending on to whom they are speaking. Typically by the age of about 9 a child can recount other narratives in addition to their own experiences, from the perspectives of the author, the characters in the story and their own views.

Individual Differences
Original Slow expressive language development (SELD), a delay in the use of words coupled with normal understanding, is characteristic of a small proportion of children who later display normal language use.[citation needed]

Dyslexia is a significant topic in child development as it affects approximately 5% of the population (in the western world).[citation needed] Essentially it is a disorder whereby children fail to attain the language skills of reading, writing and spelling commensurate with their intellectual abilities.[citation needed] Dyslexic children show a range of differences in their language development,[citation needed] from subtle speech impairments[citation needed] to mispronunciations[citation needed]to word-finding difficulties.[citation needed]

The most common phonological difficulties are limitations of verbal short-term memory[citation needed] and phonological awareness.[citation needed] Such children often have difficulties with long-term verbal learning such as months of the year or learning tables.[citation needed] In the late 1980s the phonological deficit hypothesis has become the dominant explanation.[citation needed]

The difficulties in early articulation,[citation needed] basic phonological skills and acquiring basic building blocks means that dyslexics have to invest too many resources in just coping with the basics rather than acquiring new information or skills.[citation needed] Early identification enables children to receive help before they fail.[4]

Atypically delayed language development may be diagnostic of autism,[citation needed] and regression of language[citation needed] may indicate serious disabilities like Rett syndrome.[citation needed] Poor language development also accompanies general developmental delays such as those found in Down syndrome.[citation needed]

Proposed Changes This section had insufficient amount of references, it lacked important information. We added more details to explain each deficiency, and we also added more sub sections. These sections include Language Delays, Environmental Causes, and Physical Causes.

 Revised to incorporate the following sub sections

Language Delays
Delays in language is the most frequent type of developmental delay. According to demographics 1 out of 5 children will learn to talk or use words later than other children their age. Speech/language delay is three to four times more common in boys than in girls. Some children will also display behavioral problems due to their frustration of not being able to express what they want or need.

Simple speech delays are usually temporary. Most cases are solved on their own or with a little extra attribution from the family. It’s the parent’s duty to encourage their baby to talk to them with gestures or sounds and for them to spend a great amount of time playing with, reading to, and communicating with their baby. In certain circumstances, parents will have to seek professional help, such as a speech therapist.

It is important to take into considerations that sometimes delays can be a warning sign of more serious conditions that could include hearing loss, developmental delay in other areas, or even an autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

Environmental Causes
There are many environmental causes that are linked to language delays and they include situations such as, the child is having their full attention on other skills, such as walking perfectly, rather than on language. The child may have a twin or a sibling in which their age are relatively close, and may not be receiving the parent’s full attention. Another circumstance could be a child that is in a daycare that provides few adults to be able to administer individual attention. Perhaps the most obvious component would be a child that suffers from psychosocial deprivation such as poverty, malnutrition, poor housing, neglect, inadequate linguistic stimulation, or emotional stress.

Physical Causes
Language delay can be caused by a substantial amount of underlying disorders, such as mental retardation. Mental retardation takes part for more than 50 percent of language delays. Language delay is usually more rigorous than other developmental delays in retarded children, and it is usually the first obvious symptom of mental retardation. Mental retardation accounts to global language delay, including delayed auditory comprehension and use of gestures.

Impaired hearing is one of the most common causes of language delay. A child who can not hear speech in a clear and consistent manner will have a language delay. Even the most minimum hearing impairment can considerably affect language development. Essentially, the more the severe the impairment, the more serious the language delay. Nevertheless, deaf children that are born to families who use sign language develop infant babble and use a fully expressive sign language at the same pace as hearing children. Dyslexia is a developmental reading disorder that occurs when the brain does not properly recognize and process certain symbols. Children with dyslexia may have encounter problems in rhyming and separating sounds that compose words. These abilities are essential in learning to read. Early reading skills rely heavily on word recognition. This involves in having the ability to separate out the sounds in words and be able to match them with letter and groups of letters. Due to the fact that they have trouble in connecting sounds of language to the letter of words, this may result difficulty in understanding sentences. They have confusion in mistaking letters such as “b” and “d”. For the most part, symptoms of dyslexia may include, difficulty in determining the meaning of a simple sentence, learning to recognize written words, and difficulty in rhyming.

Autism and speech delay are usually correlated. Problems with verbal language are the most common signs seen in autism.Early diagnosis and treatment of autism can significantly help the child improve their speech skills. Autism is recognized as one of the five pervasive developmental disorders, distinguished by problems with language, speech, communication and social skills that present in early childhood. Some common autistic syndromes are the following, being limited to no verbal speech, echolalia or repeating words out of context, problems responding to verbal instruction and may ignore others who speak directly.

Continuity and discontinuity in development
Continuous developmental changes, like growth in stature, involve fairly gradual and predictable progress toward adult characteristics. When developmental change is discontinuous, however, researchers may identify not only milestones of development, but related age periods often called stages.

Proposed Changes Needs citation. Would not rewrite only add citation and reference

Continuous developmental changes, like growth in stature, involve fairly gradual and predictable progress toward adult characteristics. When developmental change is discontinuous, however, researchers may identify not only milestones of development, but related age periods often called stages.

When an age period is referred to as a stage, the term implies not only this qualitative difference, but also a predictable sequence of developmental events, such that each stage is both preceded and followed by specific other periods associated with characteristic behavioral or physical qualities.

Proposed Changes Needs citation. Would not change phrasing only add citation and reference

When an age period is referred to as a stage, the term implies not only this qualitative difference, but also a predictable sequence of developmental events, such that each stage is both preceded and followed by specific other periods associated with characteristic behavioral or physical qualities.

Mechanisms of development
Although developmental change runs parallel with chronological age,age itself cannot cause development. Genetic factors are responsible for cellular changes like overall growth, changes in proportion of body and brain parts, and the maturation of aspects of function such as vision and dietary needs.

Because genes can be "turned off" and "turned on", the individual's initial genotype may change in function over time, giving rise to further developmental change. Environmental factors affecting development may include both diet and disease exposure, as well as social, emotional, and cognitive experiences.

Rather than acting as independent mechanisms, genetic and environmental factors often interact to cause developmental change.[citation needed] Some aspects of child development are notable for their plasticity, or the extent to which the direction of development is guided by environmental factors as well as initiated by genetic factors.[citation needed] For example, the development of allergic reactions appears to be caused by exposure to certain environmental factors relatively early in life, and protection from early exposure makes the child less likely to show later allergic reactions.[citation needed] When an aspect of development is strongly affected by early experience, it is said to show a high degree of plasticity; when the genetic make-up is the primary cause of development, plasticity is said to be low.[20] Plasticity may involve guidance by endogenous factors like hormones as well as by exogenous factors like infection.[citation needed]

One kind of environmental guidance of development has been described as experience-dependent plasticity, in which behavior is altered as a result of learning from the environment. Plasticity of this type can occur throughout the lifespan and may involve many kinds of behavior, including some emotional reactions.[citation needed] A second type of plasticity, experience-expectant plasticity, involves the strong effect of specific experiences during limited sensitive periods of development.[citation needed] For example, the coordinated use of the two eyes, and the experience of a single three-dimensional image rather than the two-dimensional images created by light in each eye, depend on experiences with vision during the second half of the first year of life.[citation needed] Experience-expectant plasticity works to fine-tune aspects of development that cannot proceed to optimum outcomes as a result of genetic factors working alone.[21][22]

In addition to the existence of plasticity in some aspects of development, genetic-environmental correlations may function in several ways to determine the mature characteristics of the individual. Genetic-environmental correlations are circumstances in which genetic factors make certain experiences more likely to occur.[citation needed] For example, in passive genetic-environmental correlation, a child is likely to experience a particular environment because his or her parents' genetic make-up makes them likely to choose or create such an environment.[citation needed] In evocative genetic-environmental correlation, the child's genetically-caused characteristics cause other people to respond in certain ways, providing a different environment than might occur for a genetically-different child;[citation needed] for instance, a child with Down syndrome may be treated more protectively and less challengingly than a non-Down child.[citation needed] Finally, an active genetic-environmental correlation is one in which the child chooses experiences that in turn have their effect;[citation needed] for instance, a muscular, active child may choose after-school sports experiences that create increased athletic skills, but perhaps preclude music lessons. In all of these cases, it becomes difficult to know whether child characteristics were shaped by genetic factors, by experiences, or by a combination of the two.[23]

Proposed Changes This section was very thorough and we propose not cahnging the content but only citing the information that was found.

Although developmental change runs parallel with chronological age, age itself does not cause development.

Genetic factors are responsible for cellular changes like overall growth, changes in proportion of body and brain parts, and the maturation of aspects of function such as vision and dietary needs.

Proposed Changes delete sentence or wait until source can be found for sentence on turning genes on and off.

The individual's initial genotype may change in function over time, giving rise to further developmental change. Environmental factors affecting development may include both diet and disease exposure, as well as social, emotional, and cognitive experiences.

Rather than acting as independent mechanisms, genetic and environmental factors often interact to cause developmental change. Some aspects of child development are notable for their plasticity, or the extent to which the direction of development is guided by environmental factors as well as initiated by genetic factors. For example, the development of allergic reactions appears to be caused by exposure to certain environmental factors relatively early in life, and protection from early exposure makes the child less likely to show later allergic reactions. When an aspect of development is strongly affected by early experience, it is said to show a high degree of plasticity; when the genetic make-up is the primary cause of development, plasticity is said to be low.[20] Plasticity may involve guidance by endogenous factors like hormones as well as by exogenous factors like infection.

One kind of environmental guidance of development has been described as experience-dependent plasticity, in which behavior is altered as a result of learning from the environment. Plasticity of this type can occur throughout the lifespan and may involve many kinds of behavior, including some emotional reactions. A second type of plasticity, experience-expectant plasticity, involves the strong effect of specific experiences during limited sensitive periods of development. For example, the coordinated use of the two eyes, and the experience of a single three-dimensional image rather than the two-dimensional images created by light in each eye, depend on experiences with vision during the second half of the first year of life. Experience-expectant plasticity works to fine-tune aspects of development that cannot proceed to optimum outcomes as a result of genetic factors working alone.[21][22]

In addition to the existence of plasticity in some aspects of development, genetic-environmental correlations may function in several ways to determine the mature characteristics of the individual. Genetic-environmental correlations are circumstances in which genetic factors make certain experiences more likely to occur. For example, in passive genetic-environmental correlation, a child is likely to experience a particular environment because his or her parents' genetic make-up makes them likely to choose or create such an environment. In evocative genetic-environmental correlation, the child's genetically-caused characteristics cause other people to respond in certain ways, providing a different environment than might occur for a genetically-different child; for instance, a child with Down syndrome may be treated more protectively and less challengingly than a non-Down child. Finally, an active genetic-environmental correlation is one in which the child chooses experiences that in turn have their effect; for instance, a muscular, active child may choose after-school sports experiences that create increased athletic skills, but perhaps preclude music lessons. In all of these cases, it becomes difficult to know whether child characteristics were shaped by genetic factors, by experiences, or by a combination of the two.[23]