User:Multana Singh/sandbox

Nishaan-e-mard-e Momin ba too moyam,

Choon marg aayad, tabassum bar lab-e-ost

(You ask me for the signs of a man of faith?

When death comes to him,

He has a smile on his lips.)

Shauq-e-tool-o-peych is zulmat qade mein hai agar,

Bengalee ke baat sun aur Bengalan key baal deykh

(If you like to add legnth to a story, put a twist in its tail,

Hear a Bengali talk (endlessly) and gaze upon his woman's long hair.)

Voh waqt bhee dekhya tareekh kee gharion nay,

Lamhon nay khataa kee thee,

Sadiyon nay sazaa payee

(The ages of history have recorded times,

Where for an error made in a few seconds,

Centuries had to pay the price.)

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Sikh Misls-Sikh Empire
Major General Mohindar Singh Chopra (1907–1990) was an Indian Army General Officer who was known for being in charge of stopping the Partition Riots in both corners of India; Punjab and Bengal. He stopped riots and genocides from taking place through military force.

As the Brigadier he was responsible for a voluntary flow of migration. He had managed to do a referendum in Sylhet, East Pakistan and stopped riots in Amritsar-Lahore along with the rest of Punjab after the Partition of the British Indian Army.

After retirement he became India's Ambassador to the Philippines and Taipai (as Taiwan was known). Later, he was Director, National Institute of Sports, Patiala.

Early life
Mohindar Singh Chopra was born to a Sikh background in Amritsar, and at an early age was selected for military training as an 'A' recruit.

Training
Chopra, as a young subaltern freshly commissioned from the Royal Military College at Sandhurst, had joined his first Regiment, the Royal Fusiliers of the British Indian Army, on a year's attachment in 1928. He was a King's Commissioned Officer. His army career progressed steadily, he saw action on the North West Frontier Province with the 1st Bn. 7th Rajput Regiment at Bannu after which he was posted to his permanent regiment, the 6th Royal Bn, 13th Frontier Force Rifles (Scinde) as part of the elite "PIFFER Group", the legendry "Black Puttees" as they were known. They helped to keep the peace on the turbulent North West Frontiers, with their wild and warlike Pathan tribesmen.

Various professional courses were attended but Mohindar Singh Chopra excelled in army physical training (being a Sandhurst blue for Athletics) and he was sent for advanced courses to Aldershot just before World War II broke out.

World War II
He was first sent as part of the British Indian Army Head Command to secure the area from Iraqi rebels. The region fell under the indirect occupation of the British Raj at the time hence he administrated and sent communications from Iraq to India. This phase was short, since he was sent to the Burma front which had the worst fighting between Great Britain and Japan.

Mohindar Singh Chopra then served with the Fourteenth Army (United Kingdom) on the Assam-Burma front, also known as the Forgotten Army. He was a company commander of a war he raised battalion of the 13 Frontier Force Rifles, operating deep behind Japanese lines in the Burma Campaign. He had beaten back the Japanese forces in the Arakan Jungles and was promoted to Lt Colonel by the British Indian Army for his service. His role was also to fight against the Indian National Army, under the Indian Independence League of Subhas Chandra Bose since they were working with the Japanese and trying to get Indians to revolt across the country, though they were militarily unsuccessful.

He was then sent to North Africa in 1944, although he did not see any military service in the region. He was later rewarded with being promoted to Brigadier and becoming the first Indian Commanding Officer of the 1st Assam Regiment in Shillong.

Partition of India (Bengal)
In the region of Bengal, there were barely any riots, excepting the Noakhali riots and Direct Action Day, due to the presence of the SYL Force (Sylhet Force) in the area under the overall command of Mohindar Singh Chopra, now a Brigadier. He prevented any riots or armed violence during the Sylhet Referendum despite massive religious tension in the area, as the people were almost equally split between Hindu and Muslim- the former generally wanting to be part of India and the latter Pakistan. The Sylhet Referendum concluded on 6 July 1947 with most of the region joining East Pakistan. He stayed till early September and then left to Delhi where he was given the job to partition the British Indian Army.

During his time in Bengal he had written to Master Tara Singh, Jathedar Mohan Singh Tur and other Akali leaders to keep peace in the area- although they did not listen since there was no army presence.

Partition of the British Indian Army
In Delhi, in September 1947, he had started to chalk out a plan to Partition the British Indian Army into the newly formed Pakistani Army and Indian Army. They settled on the battalions moving from and to India/Pakistan along with the transportation. He also helped Muslims settle in tents in Delhi near Humayun's Tomb and the Red Fort who were all refugees coming in from Uttar Pradesh and mostly East Punjab.

Partition of India (Punjab)
In Punjab around 800,000 Muslims from East Punjab and the rest of India were killed by Sikh jathas while trying to reach the Western side, whereas around 200,000 Hindus and 50,000 Sikhs also died in riots in, mainly, Pothohar. For three months (October–December) Mohindar Singh Chopra commanded the 123 Indian Infantry Brigade to stop the riots going on in Punjab. He took over at the height of violence from a British Officer-Brigadier Solomons, a highly decorated officer. He was the first Indian to take over the post. Brigadier Solomon had under him three battalions while he was given seven more to look after the border and to protect the refugees.

He was able to set up organized militia to keep peace in localities around the border, the Ajit Dal, Punjab Defence Force, Sher-I-Punjab Dal, Amritsar Raksha Dal, Hindu-Sikh Milap Dal, National Volunteer Corps, Ajit Fauj, Dashmesh Sena, Nalwa Dal, Desh Sevak Sena all did their part to protect the citizens no matter which religion; Muslim, Hindu or Sikh. These, although, were not able to combat the overwhelming Sikh jathas who were organized under the Shiromani Akali Dal, Maharajas of Sikh princely states like Patiala, Faridkot, Kapurthala, Nabha, Kalsia and Jind and local armed Sikhs who formed groups and raided Muslim villages and homes.

Amritsar Conflict
In early October 1947 M.S. Chopra along with his troops, was escorting a large Muslim convoy from Beas to Amritsar. Nearing the camping ground at Amritsar hundreds of Amritsar citizens shouting hysterically waving swords and spears. The situation was explosive, he stood on top of a standing bullock cart and shouted the Sikh war-cry, "Jo Bole So Nihal Sat Sri Akal." He stressed that if they killed the lot of Muslims there would be further retaliation and revenge. He told them two wrongs do not make one right and moreover Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru had given explicit instructions that those Muslims who did not want to stay in India, should be allowed to go unmolested. The crowd, miraculously, listened and dispersed.

Every protection and facility was given to the Muslims to proceed to Pakistan without any molestation at all. They were escorted by Indian troops up to Attari border. Every Muslim was given protection after his taking over in September 1947. He had under his command over ten battalions numbering over eight thousand soldiers, including six battalions of Gorkhas.

Wagah-Attari Border
He and his counterpart and former associate and friend, Brigadier Nasir Ahmad, had devised a plan to create a joint check post to make sure that the border is created. They both founded the famous Wagah-Attari Border which, at that time, was 3 drums on each side and a line of chalk drawn on the Grand Trunk Road. Visitors can still see a plaque at the bottom of the flagstaff at the check post which bears the words: "Foundation stone of this flag staff was laid by Brig Mohindar Singh Chopra on 11th Oct 1947". "'Gentlemen, this is India's North-West border: the most unnatural ever created.'"

India's First Border Skirmishes
Although, Pakistan, before the 1947 Indo-Pakistan War, also tried to infiltrate East Punjab like they did in Kashmir although he had cleverly foiled their plan by creating check-posts along the border to capture them, there were around fifty Pakistanis who were caught by the Indian Army and sent back to the other side. The first gunshots fired between India to Pakistan was during an incident near the border in the Amritsar district, some journalists were shot at by the Pakistani Army, they were not killed and managed to escape. The Pakistani raiders outnumbered the journalists escort, and hence two platoons from the 2 Bihar under Major Yadhav arrived from Attari and took action and after 4 hours and cleared the pockets occupied by Pakistani troops in Indian territory. It was further disclosed that the raiders belonged to village Thehpur in Pakistan. The East Punjab Police of the Boundary Force chased the raiders and recovered their cattle. The raiders returned with renewed strength. Brigadier Mohindar Singh Chopra took over command of the Police Force, reorganized it, and returned the fire. Lt Col Randhir Singh Grewal was noted to be one of the more competent assistants during the Partition saga.

There was a similar encounter near Qadian on 12 November when Brigadier Mohindar Singh Chopra personally directed operations and recovered improvised anti- personnel land mines and 3 " mortars from the fleeing raiders. With open warfare having broken out in Kashmir the Lahore-Amritsar border was getting restless. On 3 November, large concentrations of Pathans and other tribals at Lahore were reported to be preparing for raiding Amritsar, 3 lorry-loads of Pathans were observed at camping around Wagah, although they were thwarted as reinforcements were placed. During the major chunk of the 1947 Indo-Pakistan War, there was no fighting on the neighboring Punjab front, and he later invited Jawaharlal Nehru for a parade in Gobindgarh Fort, Amritsar to inspire the people that Punjab would be safe, Brigadier Chopra stayed there till October 1949.

During the 1947 Indo-Pakistan War, he moved his Infantry Division to Fazilka to look after that border of the Punjab.

Relief Work
Hundreds of separated women were rescued by the Indian troops from Pakistan in cross-border operations, under his command (other than Sikhs and Dogra troops) who were not permitted to enter Pakistan just as the entire Baloch Regiment was not allowed to come to India, as they had played havoc in Sheikhupura. When the womenfolk were brought back to safety at Amritsar, some parents were in hysterics at the happy reunion, whilst others refused to accept them back as they had lost their virginity. However, many of the Indian 'jawans' in the army volunteered and married these girls. To rescue the womenfolk he dispatched British officers; a few were under his command, to assist in recovery work. They went deep into Pakistan as far as Dera Ismail Khan, Bannu, Kohat and Peshawar to rescue unfortunate girls.

He formed the Military Evacuee Organisation, Amritsar that came into being on September 1, 1947. He flew with Wing commander Mehar Singh to over-see the caravans of refugees marching from Pakistan to India and drop 'food parcels and cooked chapattis and vegetables in sacks'. He revealed that he sent the belongings of Sir Zaffar Ullah, Pakistani representative at the United Nations from Qadian to Lahore.

With the 5th Infantry Division
In late 1949 he was promoted to Major General and given the responsibility to resurrect the famous 5th Infantry Division, then scattered along most of North and Eastern India. In 1950 he was given the singular honor of being appointed Colonel-in-Chief of the 5th Royal Gurkhas Rifles (Frontier Force) being then and remaining the senior Piffer in the Sub-Continent.

The 5th Division was built up into a formidable fighting force and mobilized twice for the Korea War of 1950–53, wherein he did not see service although had represented the Indian Army.

In 1953 he took over as GOC 20th Infantry Division, the last Division to have troops stationed in Tibet before the Chinese invasion there.

1952 Devon Plane Crash
In 1952 the Devon Plane Crash could have wiped out the entire top brass of the Indian Army, although they miraculously survived. Among them were the then GOC-in-C, Western Command, Lt Gen SM Shrinagesh, Maj Gen KS Thimayya, Maj Gen SPP Thorat (later GOC-in-C, Eastern Command), Maj Gen Sardanand Singh, Maj Gen Mohindar Singh Chopra and Brig Ajaib Singh. Shrinagesh, who died in December 1977, wrote, "I gazed out of the cabin window and saw flames coming out of the engine. The plane could explode the moment the fire reached the fuel system." Flt Lt S Biswas was attempting desperately to extinguish the fire when suddenly the plane flipped and plunged down to almost 4,000 feet." In Shrinagesh's own words, "We disembarked from the plane unscathed, apparently in order of precedence, and walked to the nearest village a couple of miles away. We obtained a lift from the village to the main Lucknow road in the only means of conveyance available – a bullock cart!"

Major General Mohindar Singh Chopra retired from the Indian Army in 1955.

Philippines
He became the first Ambassador from India to the Philippines and held the position till 1959. Due to his arrival, for the first time, the Cabinet meeting was held in the Malacañang state dining hall. For a short time he became the Ambassador to Taiwan as well in the 1960s. Around half of all Indians in the Philippines were Sikhs, and most of them shaven.

Director of Sports, Patiala
After a few years of civilian life, from 17 July 1964 to 30 April 1967 he was Director of National Institute of Sports in Patiala.

Later Life
In 1988 he was invited to Manchester where he formed the Jullundur Brigade Association between India (5th Battalion, Sikh Regiment), Pakistan (1st Battalion the Frontier Force Regiment) and Great Britain (1st Battalion, Kings Regiment). "'There is something unique and central in the faiths that the men in arms professed- to have been made incumbent upon men of different religions (Christian, Sikh, Hindu) to have lived, fought and died together.'"

Death
He passed away in New Delhi at the age of 84.

His memoirs were collected and published with explanations by his son, famous aviator Pushpindar Singh Chopra in '1947: A Soldiers' Story' which depicted the military side of the Partition of India.

Some of his relics are currently on display in the Town Hall Partition Museum, Amritsar.

Early life and family
Singh was educated at The Doon School, Dehra Dun to a military background. His father was Major General Mohinder Singh Chopra, a famed soldier in the Indian Army, although his family had to shift from Pakistan to India- leaving their ancestral lands behind.

He had graduated from Government College, Chandigarh. He worked with Gillanders Arbuthnot & Co Ltd in Calcutta, and later with Rallis, where he quickly made a name for himself in marketing.

Aeronautical career
He started with debunking conspiracies by the Pakistan Air Force during the 1965 Indo-Pakistan War where he interviewed pilots. His article, ‘Laying the Sargodha Ghost to Rest’, in Vayu Aerospace Review in November 1985 was a trailblazer amongst others, which led to debunking the myth of Pakistan Air Force’s claim of shooting down five Indian Air Force Hunters on September 7, 1965. His ‘Aircraft of the Indian Air Force 1933-73’ became standard reference book on the Indian Air Force and was followed by an account of the Service on its Golden and then Diamond Jubilees. The definitive three-volume History of the Indian Air Force ‘Himalayan Eagles’ was officially released at the IAF’s Platinum Jubilee in 2007.

He was also responsible for the immense respect and recognition that Arjan Singh received before he became an Air Marshal in the Indian Army, and Hardit Singh Malik's story being mainstream in Indian Air Force circles.

He was the Founder-Editor of the Vayu Aerospace and Defence Review and was Indian editor for the Air International, World Air Power Journal, Asian Defence Journal, Jane’s Defence Weekly and Aviation Week & Space Technology. He also headed Daimler Benz Aerospace in India. During an earlier Farnborough Air Show, he was given a special award for his breaking news story on the Indian LCA programme from the Royal Aeronautical Society of the UK. In 2015, at the Aerospace Media Awards held at the Paris Air Show, he was awarded ‘Lifetime Achievement Award’ for Outstanding Contribution to Aviation Journalism’.

Magazines and Articles
He wrote extensively about the history of the Indian Air Force, from its inception in 1933 till present day. He was the founder editor of Vayu Aerospace and Defence Review, a bi-monthly aviation and defence magazine based in New Delhi, and the Society of Aerospace Studies. He worked with other magazines too, including the Society of Airospace Studies, Asian Defence Journal, Aviation Week & Space Technology and the Royal Aeronautical Society.

Literary Contributions
His book, Fiz’aya: Psyche of the Pakistan Air Force was a groundbreaking reference book on the history on the Pakistan Air Force, and strengthened Indo-Pakistan ties on aviation history of both the countries. Other books written by Pushpindar Singh Chopra were the Fighting Fourteen, Tusker Charge, Valiant to the Last, First Supersonics, the Battle Axes and Tigers in the Sky. One of his most famous books was one which his father, Major General Mohindar Singh Chopra, wjo had written of his accounts during the Partition of Punjab and Sylhet Referendum; where he was given the Herculean task to solve the Partition problems.

Fairchild-Dornier 228
One of his largest breakthroughs was the launching of the Fairchild-Dornier 228, he was a representative of Dornier in India at the time, which has been one of India's greatest aeronautical accomplishments till date and allowed for the main production of the plane to be in India, the fuselage, wings and tail unit are manufactured by HAL in Kanpur, India. This project was the first in the list of many successful Indian Air Force plane development projects with international collaboration.

Socio-religious career
Pushpindar founded ‘Nishaan Nagaara’, a non-political journal, to highlight Sikh issues, culture, history and heritage in April 1999. The inaugural issue was released by Manmohan Singh, the late Prime Minister of India. He was made the President of the Sikh Forum along with the Sikh Chamber of Commerce, and protested for justice for the 1984 Anti-Sikh Riots, a resolution seeking declaration of the violence as “Sikh Genocide Day” was also passed by him along with other leaders such as H. S. Phoolka.

He also attended the Sikh Reception in 2008 in Great Britain, along with many other Sikh events, collaborating with magazines like Sikhnet, and scholars such as Inder Jit Singh of New York and Bhayee Sikander Singh of Bagrian. He spoke against the Sikh community being termed as Khalistani and believed it was wrong for every member of the Sikh diaspora to be painted with the "extremist brush."

Death
Pushpindar Singh Chopra passed away due to COVID-19 in Gurgaon in 2021.

Books

 * A Guide to Air Power in Asia and the Pacific (1971)
 * Aircraft of the Indian Air Force, 1933-73 (1974)
 * A Directory of Combat Aircraft in Asia (1980)
 * The Indian Air Force and its Aircraft (1982)
 * Touching the Sky: the Indian Air Force Today (1991)
 * Fiz’aya: Psyche of the Pakistan Air Force (1991)
 * The Battle Axes (1993)
 * 1947: A Soldier’s Story (1997)
 * Diamonds in the Sky (2000)
 * Portrait of Courage: Century of the 5th Battalion, The Sikh Regiment (2001)
 * History of Aviation of India: Spanning the Century of Flight (2003)
 * Fly Navy (2006)
 * Himalayan Eagles: History of the Indian Air Force (2007)
 * Consolidation and Expansion (2007)
 * World Air Power (2007)
 * Foundations (2007)
 * The Black Archers: Illustrated History of No. 47 Squadron Indian Air Force (2009)
 * Dragon Fire, Illustrated History of No. 6 Squadron Indian Air Force (2012)
 * The First Supersonics, No. 28 Squadron, IAF (2013)
 * Neuve Chapelle: The Jullundur Brigade in France & Flanders, 1914-1915 (2014)
 * Fly Navy Fly (2022)

Magazines

 * Vayu Aerospace and Defence Review (1973-Present)
 * Nishaan Nagaara Magazine (1999-Present)

British Raj-India
Maharaja Ripudaman Singh (4 March 1883 – 12 December 1942), later known as Sardar Gurcharan Singh, was the Maharaja of Nabha State from 1911 to 1928, when he was deposed by the British. He later became an Indian revolutionary.

Early life
Ripudaman Singh was born on 4 March 1883 at Nabha, the only son and heir of Hira Singh Nabha. From 1906 to 1908, he was a member of the Imperial Legislative Council of India, where he spoke on behalf of the Sikh interest and pioneered reformist legislation. He represented Nabha in 1911 at the coronation of King George V.

Early Career
Upon his father's death in 1911, Ripudaman Singh ascended the gadi of Nabha; though recognised as Maharaja, he refused to be crowned by the Viceroy of India as was then the norm for a senior ruling prince in India. Continuing his interest in legal affairs, he reformed the state judiciary and enacted numerous pieces of progressive legislation, including laws providing for female education and a progressive marriage act. He also established a legislature and an executive council to govern Nabha.

Ripudaman Singh befriended Lala Lajpat Rai and other prominent leaders of the swaraj movement. During the First World War, he refused to contribute Nabha state force contingents for the British Indian Army. As a result, he was arguably the only Indian ruler who did not receive any British war service-related honours. Shocked by the events of the Amritsar Massacre of Jalianwala Bagh in 1919, he publicly opposed the British, clashing with his distant cousin Bhupinder Singh of Patiala, who was a strong supporter of British rule in India.

The trigger for the rivalry between Maharaja Bhupinder Singh and Maharaja Ripudaman Singh was that a lady named Ishar Kaur (also known as Rachni) from Patiala was wanted in a case of theft in Nabha. Bhupinder Singh had seen her on a trip to Nabha, and had remembered her by her distinctive blonde hair and blue eyes; a rare trait for Punjabis. Before the Nabha Police could find her she ran away to Lahore, where she was wedded to one Sant Singh Kapur, who was an Additional Deputy Commissioner at Nabha. The Lahore Police mistakenly arrested Sant Singh Kapur and Ishar Kaur managed to escape to Patiala, where she was taken into the Maharaja's Darbar, possibly as a Rani. All requests by Nabha to give her back were fallen on deaf ears.

Late Career and Deposition
Ripudaman Singh was granted a local salute of 15-guns in 1921, but he would not stay in British favour for much longer. In 1923, he was forced to relinquish control of Nabha to a British administrator after he was suspected of kidnapping and attempted murder through poisoning. In 1923, Ripudaman Singh agreed to leave Nabha and to settle at Dehra Dun. For this he was granted a large allowance. However, he continued to intrigue and attempt to regain control of Nabha to some degree. In 1927, he went on pilgrimage to Sri Abichal Nagar Hazur Sahib and retook the Khalsa initiation rites, taking the name of Gurcharan Singh. The next year, he was formally deposed by the British for sedition and succeeded by his eldest son, Pratap Singh Nabha. He was stripped of his rank and titles and exiled to Kodaikanal in the Madras Presidency. Thereafter, he was known officially as Gurcharan Singh.

Death
Ripudaman Singh died at Kodaikanal on 12 December 1942, aged 59. He had been succeeded in 1928 by his eldest son, Pratap Singh Nabha.

Family
Ripudaman Singh married three times, twice to ladies of royal blood and once morganatically:


 * 1. Jagdish Kaur (1884-20 February 1925). Married at Nabha in 1901. She had a daughter:
 * Amar Kaur (8 October 1907-)
 * 2. Sarojni Devi (1898-19?). Married at Nabha 10 October 1918 and had issue:
 * 1. Kharak Singh, who succeeded as Maharaja of Nabha
 * 2. Kharak Singh (d. 1970 in Canada)
 * 3. Gurbaksh Singh (d November 1963) Married in 1950 Princess Chandra Prabha Kumari of Rajpipla (11 November 1932 – 22 October 2012, daughter of Vijaysinhji I of Rajpipla). He had one son and two daughters:
 * Viveck Singh
 * Krishna Kumari (1951–1994)
 * Tuhina Kumari
 * 4. Kamla Devi Sahiba
 * 5. Vimla Devi Sahiba
 * a. Gurcharan Kaur (1904–1983). Married Gurcharan Kaur in 1923 and had issue:
 * 1. Narinder Singh (1924-). A son and a daughter.
 * 2. Fateh Singh (1935-). Two sons.
 * 3. Jasmer Singh
 * 4. Shamsher Singh
 * 5. Vijay Kaur
 * 6. Charanjeet Kaur. Two sons.
 * 7. Nandhem Kaur

Titles

 * 1883-1911: Sri Tikka Sahib Ripudaman Singh
 * 1911-1927: His Highness Farzand-i-Arjumand, Aqidat-Paiwand-i-Daulat-i-Angrezistan, Brar Bains Sarmour, Raja-i-Rajagan, Maharaja Shri Ripudaman Singh Malvinder Bahadur, Maharaja of Nabha
 * 1927-1928: His Highness Farzand-i-Arjumand, Aqidat-Paiwand-i-Daulat-i-Angrezistan, Brar Bains Sarmour, Raja-i-Rajagan, Maharaja Shri Gurcharan Singh Malvinder Bahadur, Maharaja of Nabha
 * 1928-1942: Sardar Gurcharan Singh

Honours

 * Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society (FRGS)
 * Delhi Durbar Medal-1903
 * King George V Coronation Medal w/Delhi Durbar Clasp-1911

Early life and family
Sir Sobha Singh was born in 1888, in the village of Hadali in Khushab, Shahpur District – then part of British India (now Pakistan). He was the elder of the two sons of Sardar Bahadur Sujan Singh and Lakshmi Devi, the younger one being Sardar Bahadur Ujjal Singh, who was a member of Parliament in India along with the governor of Punjab and Tamil Nadu.

He was pulled out of school before giving his final exams, as his father believed that to make money one only needed was addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and how to calculate simple and compound interest, although he wanted to learn English, he could not till much later. He was married at the age of 17 to a 13-year-old girl from a village named Mitha Tiwana neighboring Hadali, her name was Viran Bai, although her name was changed to Varyam Kaur- to others she was known as Lady Sobha Singh. His father, Sardar Sujan Singh, constructed many buildings in Sargodha and Multan. He was of a landowning family in the Shahpur District of Punjab.

Early career
Sujan Singh and Sobha Singh were called to the Central Public Works Department and had been asked them to arrive and start plans for the construction of the New Delhi. He had started with developing the roads of Delhi, including Alipur Road. Sobha Singh and his father were present for the Coronation of the King and Queen near Delhi in 1911 as guests due to their work in the field of canal irrigation, development and construction of roads and rail tracks, invited by Malcom Hailey, Baron of Shahpur. Malcom Hailey knew Sujan Singh since a long time, in 1905 they first came in contact in Shahpur while constructing sites in the area.

When coming to Delhi Sujan Singh had given Sobha Singh a dark green Raleigh cycle made in England which he used for the next fifteen years.

Delhi Conspiracy Case
On 23 December 1912, he was an eyewitness to the Delhi Conspiracy Case, when the Viceroy's elephant was bombed, although no one except the umbrella-bearer was killed. Although, when everyone dispersed after seeing the bombing, all the witnesses believed that the English would massacre the local Indians, hence Sujan Singh and Sobha Singh went to Gurdwara Sis Ganj Sahib and shut the gates of the Gurudwara to make sure the Guru Granth Sahib was safe. Once night fell, they both walked back to their residence in the dark, while Sujan Singh muttered, 'Wahe Guru, Wahe Guru'.

Foundation Stone of Delhi
Sobha Singh's first job was to relocate the foundation stones from where the King and Queen had laid them, in Kingsway. Under cover of darkness (so it would not be taken as a bad omen), he moved them to the new site 11 km away on Raisina Hill. Sobha Singh was accepted as a senior-grade contractor in the Construction of New Delhi. He lived in his fathers house on the Old Mill Road now known as Rafi Marg.

World War I
While Sujan Singh toured Shahpur, Hadali and Mian Channu to recruit soldiers for World War I, Sobha Singh stayed in Delhi and tried his prospects in the textile industry. Due to World War I Sir Sobha Singh, Sardar Sujan Singh and his family shifted near Sabzi Mandi in Delhi and worked in the textile industry, in a cotton mill. It was originally called Jumna Mill but then he changed the name to Khalsa Cotton Spinning and Weaving Mills. The mill was not successful and often had to shut down due to lack of money and they were on the verge of bankruptcy. In 1919 a fire swallowed the mill and turned it to ashes. They were very concerned that the English may lose the war and New Delhi would have never been built, but that did not happen. He then learned English to communicate with the Englishmen during this time.

Income Tax Enquiry Commission
Liaquat Ali Khan (then finance minister of British India) started an income tax enquiry commission against people who supposedly made money during World War I and hadn't paid taxes, he had to spend three years answering to that commission, and was proven innocent in court.

Construction of Delhi
Sir Malcom Hailey allowed Sobha Singh to buy several extensive sites like the Rashtrapati Bhavan, India Gate, Vijay Chowk and other sites at as little as Rs 2 per square yard, freehold as a reward for their service in the First World War. He hired around 6,000 Bagadi laborers and dozens of supervisors, clerks and accountants with stone imported from Dholpur. The Bagadis were famous for building Mughal monuments like the Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Humayun's Tomb and others. The laborers had very low wages- 80 paisa for men and 60 paisa for women per day. During this time Sujan Singh left for Punjab to help his younger son, Ujjal Singh. He had gone back to Mian Channu when his father fell ill. Sujan Singh had died at 65 of illness in their Haveli at Mian Channu.

He originally lived in Old Mill Road, then shifted to Ajmeri Gate and then shifted to a double-storied house in Jantar Mantar Road, which became a road for wealthy Sikh contractors, currently Kerala House, and bought an Oldsmobile from an English engineer. He bought the land of Connaught Place in 1921 and was given the title of 'Sardar Sahib' in the 1922 birthday celebrations. The official horticulturist imported some exotic trees like the Sausage tree and the African Tulip tree from East Africa to line the streets of Delhi, to make sure that the city remained cool in summer.

Maharaja Jiwajirao Scindia gave him a plot of land in Delhi to build a royal house as an embassy in the capital, but it became too costly for him after it was completed so it was not bought back. Sir Sobha Singh was only able to complete the Janpath side, as the British chief engineer refused to release payments claiming he had to complete the building before. Sobha Singh was forced to take a loan of around 20 lakhs. He was a member of the Delhi Municipal Committee, the Improvement Trust which was planning New Delhi and the New Delhi Municipal Committee. For the South Block and War Memorial Arch (now India Gate), Sir Sobha was the sole builder. He also worked on some parts of the Viceregal House (now Rashtrapati Bhavan) and Vijay Chowk. He constructed many residential and commercial buildings, including the Connaught Place market complex, as well as the Chelmsford Club, A.I.F.A.C.'s Hall, Broadcasting House (All India Radio), the National Museum, Dyal Singh College, T.B. Hospital, Modern School, Deaf and Dumb School, St. Columba's School, Red Cross Buildings and Baroda House. He also owned the first few cinemas (Regal Building and Rivoli) and restaurants in Delhi. Outside Delhi, he built the High Court and Government Medical College at Nagpur and the Pasteur Institute at Kasauli.

He was given many titles, such as Sardar Bahadur, then O.B.E, knighthood and nomination to the Council of States.

"'Sobha Singh didn’t have time to worry about politics. He just kept constructing and building and making money.”"

Akali Movement
Sir Sobha Singh's activities were questioned by the British after 1921, after he started helping Sir Sundar Singh Majithia in his extremist demands against the British Raj. William Birdwood had clearly stated that the Sikh prisoners kept in Rasina Hill after the Jaito Morcha and Akali Movement should have been kept in custody. On 16th Sep. 1921, Sir Sobha Singh defied the orders of the British, stating that they were innocent and non-violent, and the Sikhs who were charged with more severe terms (manslaughter, looting, theft) were still kept in Rasina Hill despite the Akali protest. Sir John Maynard agreed with Sir Sobha Singh and the Akalis, and allowed the prisoners to be free. Sir Sobha Singh was also made the honorary secretary of the Chief Khalsa Diwan like his father was.

He wrote a letter congratulating Sir Sunder Singh Majithia and wished his success in the Akali Movement.

Bhagat Singh Issue
According to the official version, in 1929 Sobha Singh came late and just as the session had started in the Parliament and it was a lively discussion about the Indian National Congress' role in British India. He was seated near Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt, and while he was scanning the headlines on a newspaper, they had started firing. So that they would not see him as a threat, Sobha Singh sat down on his chair till the second bomb was thrown. Only after the second bomb did Sir Sobha Singh get up, and when he heard shots he went back and saw Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt being escorted by the policemen. Once they finished, an Anglo-Indian officer surrounded all of them, and recognizing Sobha Singh, an honorary magistrate, they let him leave.

He along with Mahatma Gandhi, Ajaib Singh Kokri, Jawaharlal Nehru and 6 members of the HSRC (Bhagat Singh's party) had all testified, inside or outside the court. Bhagat Singh himself admitted to his actions during their special tribunal, in fact he requested the tribunal to be shot in the manner of a prisoner-of-war which was denied.

Police Career
During his time as an honorary magistrate Mahatma Gandhi had started his protests and Satyagrahas, which Sobha Singh had to quell. For three weeks during the Quit India Movement, he helped cool the heated situation in different areas of Delhi and did not arrest nor baton charge any of the protestors.

Sujan Singh Park
Built in 1945 by Anglo- Indian British architect Walter Skyes George and Sir Sobha Singh as the city's first apartment complex and was part of the Lutyen's plan. The entire complex was raised to house British and American military and civilian officers during World War II to help in the war effort. In the early 1940s, Sobha Singh got the contract from the chief engineer of Delhi, Bahadur Suleman Khan, who himself migrated to Karachi after the Partition of India. It was known as Delhi's "drawing room". For officers that had families larger flats were given and ones without families went to what is now known as the Ambassador Hotel.

Urban Legends and Sayings
He was a part of what was nicknamed the Panj Pyare of Delhi (named after the Panj Pyare, the first 5 Khalsa Sikhs)- Sir Sobha Singh, Basakha Singh, Ram Singh Kabli, Narain Singh and Dharam Singh Sethi.

"The only man expanding while contracting" was a popular joke at the time about his business.

He came to be described as "Adhi Dilli ka Malik" (the owner of half of Delhi) as he virtually owned a half of Lutyens' Delhi, before or during its construction.

Swatantra Party
Chakravarti Rajagopalachari noted that Sir Sobha Singh was an enthusiast of the Swatantra Party. Sir Sobha Singh held the belief that the Indian National Congress was flawed, although the Swatantra Party held the key to progression in India.

Asian Games
He was a part of the organizing committee for the Asian Games in New Delhi, 1951. The committee was headed by Maharaja Sir Yadavindra Singh.

Bhakra-Nangal Dam Project
Bhakra Nangal Dam was designed by an American, Harvey Slocum and was executed by Sir Sobha Singh. When lack of funding from investors and the government had forced Harvey Slocum to almost abandon the project, Sir Sobha Singh arrived and funded it with his own money, he also helped in engineering parts of the project where it was unfeasible, along with many other engineers. The Bhakra Nangal Dam was built over thirteen years (1949-1963) and Sir Sobha Singh steered the project through rough storms. The tiles that he had bought, if landed in a straight line, would be seven times the length of the Equator, it is the largest multipurpose river valley project in India and the was the only dam in Asia which could produce 1500 MW of power- a beacon to India's new economic progress despite the setbacks and newly achieved freedom.

Business in Bhopal
Sir Sobha Singh was heavily invested in Bhopal owning many properties. He worked from a bungalow called Kashiyana Alvi near the Upper Lake and was a close friend of last ruler of Bhopal, Nawab Hamiduallah Khan. Nawab invited him to set up industries in Bhopal State, for which he was given a 36-acre (lease for 99 years, at Rs 1) near the old railway station. In the property was the Narbada Ice Factory and an orchard. It was here where his son wrote the famous story, Train to Pakistan.

Charity work
Sardar Bahadur Sir Sobha Singh left a large part of his private estate to a charitable trust, the Sobha Singh Charitable Trust, which maintains homes and hospitals for the terminally ill and aged all over the country, most recently it built, a Dharamsala, within the Guru Teg Bahadur Hospital complex, in New Delhi in 2005. He also presided over some institutions funded by it like the Deaf and Dumb School. Among his last grants was one for Bhagat Puran Singh's Pingalwara home for the destitute in Amritsar. He also became the head of the Central Public Works Department in Delhi. He also donated heavily to the Tuberculosis Association of India. He was a believer in the concept of Dasvandh (donating a tenth of ones earnings to charity).

He worked with the Modern School as well, and was the main contractor.

Death
Sir Sobha Singh died at the age of 90 in Delhi on 18 April 1978 from age. His son Khushwant Singh noted that he had passed minutes after having his last sip of Scotch Whiskey.

Personal life and family
Sir Sobha Singh used to be very Anglicized as mentioned by his son Khushwant Singh- "he never wore Sherwanis or Chooridars, only two-piece suits, excepting the Tehmat he wore before sleeping." He was very hospitable, Sapru, Jayakar, Gandhi, Jinnah and C. Rajagopalachari all became very close to him and stayed at his house 'Vaikunth' in Delhi, he used to talk about politics with Mahatma Gandhi in Birla House. Due to his hospitality, after one of his parties in Shimla, a captain offered a lucrative contract to supply provisions to the British Indian Army.

He had four sons and a daughter:


 * 1) Bhagwant Singh.
 * 2) Daljit Singh: Politician who contested from Safdar Jung constituency and won in 1951 by a margin of 81%- also related to Prime Minister Boris Johnson.
 * 3) Khushwant Singh: Famous journalist, writer and politician in the Rajya Sabha. He received the Padma Bhushan (which he gave back in protest after Operation Blue Star), and later the Padma Vibhushan.
 * 4) Mohinder Kaur: Married to Jaspal Singh Virk of Jandiala Guru.
 * 5) Brigadier Gurbaksh Singh: Soldier in the Indian Army who took part in the 1962 Sino-Indian War.

Unlike him, his sons were not supporters of British rule, his two elder sons when going to buy school uniforms came back with khadi (handspun cloth) as Mahatma Gandhi boycotted British fabrics.

He was a gardener, and grew grapefruit, strawberries and roses. He was very humble, and named no buildings after himself or his children, he named many after his father (Sujan Singh Park near Khan Market, Sujan Singh Block now Wengers Block in Connaught Place and more) and one after his nephew, Narinder Singh, who he raised as his own.

He was a proponent of arts and owned the first theatre in the new city- the Regal Theatre which he originally tried managing himself along with a restaurant named Standard, now Gaylord. He even bought another theatre named Rivoli but neither prospered.

Legacy
Sir Sobha Singh did not name any places after himself, although Prime Minister Manmohan Singh had stated that Connaught Place was to be renamed Sobha Singh Place although it did not happen. Instead they named it Indira Chowk and Rajiv Chowk.

Post-independence none of the contractors, architects or engineers of New Delhi were honored and no roundabouts, roads or monuments were named after any of them, Khushwant Singh stated, "it appeared like anti-Sikh communal prejudice."

In 2006, India International Centre (IIC) organized the first Sir Sobha Singh Memorial Lectures, in which the inaugural lecture titled, "My father, the builder", was given by his son, writer Khushwant Singh.

1850-1880

 * 1) First Sikh Dark Ages
 * 2) First Deravaad Ansi Sikhs Gulabdasi Sect Nirankaris Brahmo Samaj in Punjab Sitala Mata Mahants Taksalism
 * 3) First Isaivaad
 * 4) First Nashavaad
 * 5) Revolt of 1857
 * 6) Punjab Education Policy
 * 7) Sikh Jagirs
 * 8) Sikh Trade Routes
 * 9) Second Opium War
 * 10) Kuka Movement
 * 11) Sikh Settlement outside Punjab
 * 12) Punjab Rural Insurrection

1880-1947

 * 1) Singh Sabha Movement (Amritsar, Lahore, Bhasaur)
 * 2) Punjab Canal Colonies
 * 3) Tirah Campaign
 * 4) Arya Samaj in Punjab
 * 5) Christianity in Punjab
 * 6) World War I
 * 7) Jallianwala Bagh Massacre
 * 8) Third Anglo-Afghan War
 * 9) Pagdi Sambhal Jatta Movement
 * 10) Non-Cooperation Movement
 * 11) Akali Movement
 * 12) Nankana Sahib Massacre
 * 13) Babbar Akali Movement
 * 14) New Delhi Development Project
 * 15) Civil Disobedience Movement
 * 16) World War II
 * 17) Sikhistan Independence War
 * 18) 1947 Indo-Pakistan War

1947-1997

 * 1) Partition Resettlement Program
 * 2) Punjabi Suba Movement
 * 3) Disbandment of P.E.P.S.U.
 * 4) Green Revolution in Punjab, India
 * 5) Shiromani Akali Dal Split
 * 6) 1962 Sino-Indian War
 * 7) 1965 Indo-Pakistan War
 * 8) 1967 Punjab Legislative Assembly election
 * 9) Naxalite Movement in Punjab, India
 * 10) Batala Conference
 * 11) Anandpur Sahib Resolution
 * 12) The Emergency (India)
 * 13) Save Democracy Protests
 * 14) Sikh-Nirankari Clashes
 * 15) Dharam-Yudh Morcha
 * 16) Operation Blue Star
 * 17) Sikh Mutiny of 1984
 * 18) Assassination of Indira Gandhi
 * 19) 1984 Anti-Sikh Riots
 * 20) Sikh Exodus of 1984
 * 21) Khalistan Liberation War
 * 22) 1992 Punjab Legislative Assembly election
 * 23) Police Rule in Punjab

Second Sikh Dark Ages
Sujan Singh traced his ancestry through his father Inder Singh right up to Baba Sangat Singh who in the seige of Chamkaur, had worn Guru Gobind Singh's clothes and let himself be captured and executed so that his Guru could escape. The martyrdom of Sangat Singh has always been a matter of pride for members of the family. Sujan Singh and his kinsmen were traders.
 * 1) 1997 Punjab Legislative Assembly election
 * 2) Sikh Exodus of the 21st Century
 * 3) Diasporization of Khalistan
 * 4) Second Nashavaad
 * 5) Second Isaivaad
 * 6) Second Deravaad Akhand Kirtani Jatha Nirankaris Namdharis RSSB Ram Rahim Hinduism
 * 7) Punjabi Music Industry
 * 8) Second Punjab Rural Insurrection
 * 9) 2015 Guru Granth Sahib desecration controversy
 * 10) 2015 Sarbat Khalsa
 * 11) 2020-2021 Indian farmers' protest
 * 12) Amritpal Singh Saga

On the termination of the Sutlej campaign, the British government confiscated:

Rupar

Ladwa

Allowala (Raja Sunderamir Singh ruled it, in Jalandhar, very close to Maharaja Ranjit Singh, gave tribute to both British and Ranjit Singh, helped inthe Afghan campaign of Ranjit singh

Mamdot

Malaudh (relative of Patiala, Jind, Nabha, Faridkot, sardars, turned into a jagir instead)

Thanesar (very large force during the misl times, Bhanga Singh of Thanesar conquered Karnal)

Mani Majra

Shahabad (Bhag Singh and Bhanga Singh wrote to the Sikh chiefs of Shahabad and Ambala calling them to the Prince’s camp. They replied : “ You have plundered the royal domains. Now that the Prince and Nawab Majd-ud-daulah have come into your territory, you seek assistance from us. We will not come.)

Shamgarh (related to the Badal family,

Buriya (Rai singh of buriya, related to the Bhangis)

Sodhis of Anandpur

Took a quarter of Nabha territory and distributed it among the collaborating chiefs

more than 75 percent of Kapurthala territory which was below the Sutlej was taken by the british

The Malwa jdgirddrs were deprived of judicial powers and left only with the right to collect revenue

Jawahar Singh Kapur
Son of Bhai Anna Singh Kapur of Gurjanwala. Ancestors were Granthis in the Darbar Sahib.

After finishing school, he entered service in the accounts department of the North Western Railway in 1876, and making steady progress rose to be the superintendent in the Manager’s office in 1903. In 1882, he attended law classes of the University of the Panjab, but did not continue to complete the course. In 1886, he applied for the position of a Granthi at the Harimandar at Amritsar, but his candidature was rejected owing to his earlier religious affiliations. He has 18 works in 43 publications in 2 languages and 89 library holdings to his credit. The main proponents of the Singh Sabha were educated, energetic men of the middle class including Gurmukh Singh Chandhur, Dit Singh, and Jawahar Singh Kapur. Gurmukh Singh Chandhur (1849-98) was employed as a cook in the palace kitchen of the raja of Kapurthala. He was given a stipend by the raja and after completing his studies became the first professor of Punjabi at the Oriental College (1885). He was the author of many books in Punjabi including a History of India. Dit Singh (18531901) was a Mazhabi of Patiala. He was amongst those most eager to welcome Dayanand and later his most vigorous critic. Jawahar Singh Kapur (1859-1901), a Khatri Sikh, was employed as a clerk in the north¬ western railway.

Jawahar Singh Kapur addressed meetings in Amritsar telling his Sikh audiences that the Arya Samaj had its institutions to teach Sanskrit and the Vedas, the Muslims had made provision for the teaching of the Koran at Aligarh, but the Sikhs had no institution for the study of Gurmukhi and the Grahth. Tribune, August 15, 1890. The two Singh Sabhas joined hands to create the Khalsa College. An Englishman, Dr. S. C. Oman, was appointed principal. The chief justice of the Punjab High Court, W. H. Rattigan, became president of the college establishment committee, which was controlled by the vicepresident, Sir Attar Singh of Bhadaur, and the secretary, Jawahar Singh Kapur.

The Establishment of the Singh Sabha Lahore, in 1879 A.D. The Singh Sabha of Amritsar was emulated by a new organisation, The Lahore Singh Sabha, which held its first meeting on November 2,1879. Its prominent members were Jawahar Singh Kapur, Thakur Singh Sandhanwalia, Prince Bikram Singh of Kapurthala, Professor Gurmukh Singh and Giani Ditt Singh. The Lahore Sabha was even more democratic than the Amritsar Sabha and accepted members of all castes including untouchables.

The Singh Sabha leadership included GianI Dit Singh, Prof. Gurmukh Singh, Kanwar Bikram Singh, and BhaT Jawahar Singh Kapur etc. During this period the Sikh nation had to fight on another front. It was British sponsored Arya Samaj movement, which was imported to the Sikh Homeland in order to push the Sikhs to another front. The Christians and the Arya Samajists carried on plans to convert the Sikhs into Christianity and Hinduism respectively. The awakened Sikh leadership, under the banner of Singh Sabha, thwarted the designs of the Christian missionaries and the British-sponsored Arya Samaj movement and succeed in saving the Sikh religion from disappearing.

Bhai Jawahar Singh Kapoor was the Vice-President of Lahore Singh Sabha.He was Head clerk in Northern Railway.He talked with Professor Gurmukh Singh, and Giani Dit Singh, and they thought in the long run.(ref. P 233 of"Bhai Dit Singh Giani, Jivan,Rachna Te Shakhsiat", by Dr. Karnail Singh Somal).On this page the author has written about the Newspaper"Khalsa Akhbar, dated May 25,1900.This Newspaper confirms that---"Jis Kaum Wich Door Andesh Ate Diragh Vichar Wale Purakh Na Hon, oh Kaum Kade Bhi Apani Unati Nahi Kar Sakdi---

There was an agreement between the British Government and Singh Sabha organizers to constrct Gurdwaras in East-Africa.Owing to this agreement,Prof.Gurmukh Singh visited Kilindini, a place visited by Satguru Hargobind Sahib in 1632.The first Sri Guru Singh Sabha Gurdwara Sahib was opened in Kilindini literally within a few weeks of the arrival of the first shipload of indentured labourers in 1898.

The committee founded the Khalsa College and academic programme started in 1894. Jawahar Singh Kapoor and Sunder Singh Majithia were pioneers in the establishment of the Khalsa College. The Sikhs maharajas made their contribution financially. Jawahar Singh Kapoor who was an aryasmajist served as secretary of the Khalsa College Amritsar managing committee for 20 years. Meanwhile, Mohindera College was set up at Patiala by Maharaja Patiala and Randhir College at Kapurthala by the Raja of Kapurthala.

Sir Robert Egerton contributed.

His daughter, Durga Devi and Dr. Sunder Singh Puri's, marriage was the first time a traditional Sikh did an Anand Karaj, before it was only Nirankaris who performed so.

In 1886 he applied to be a Granthi in the Darbar Sahib but was not allowed due to his previous religious affiliations with the Arya Samaj.

When he was younger he was affiliated with a man named Sant Bahadur Singh of the Gulabdasi sect, and later joined the Arya Samaj, and became the President of Arya Samaj Lahore. He was the head of Arya Paropkarini Sabha from 1878-1883. He broke all ties with the Arya Samaj on 25th November 1885, when an Arya Samaji preacher named Pandit Guru Dutt spoke deregetorily about Guru Nanak Dev on the eleventh annual meeting of the Arya Samaj. The base of the Arya Samaj broke up as all Sikhs who supported it left the Arya Samaj and created the Lahore Singh Sabha to fight against the Hindu and Christian crusade against Sikhism. These included Bhai Ditt Singh, Prof. Gurumukh Singh, Kanwar Bikram Singh of Kapurthala and Sir Attar Singh of Bhadaur. Sardar Dharam Singh Garjakhvalia.

He became the Vice-President of the Lahore Singh Sabha, and pressed claims of the Punjabi language in 1882 in front of the Hunter Commission.

The foundation stone for #Khalsa College, a premier education institution for Sikhs, was laid in Amritsar by Sir James Broadwood Lyall. Prof. Gurmukh Singh was instrumental in its establishment. The Khalsa College Establishment Committee was set up in 1890 to build the institution, including Sir Attar Singh, Gurdial Singh Maan of Nabha, Diwan Gurmukh Singh of Patiala, Bhai Kahn Singh, Professor Gurmukh Singh, and Sardar Jawahir Singh. Many individuals and princely states donated to establish the institution.⁠⁠ Maharaja Rajendra Singh of Patiala, Maharaja Hira Singh of Nabha, Maharaja Jagatjit Singh of Kapurthala and Sir Sunder Singh Majithia.

He inaugarated Lansdowne Bridge at Sakkhar in 1889.

He wrote multiple books, two of them very famous- named Ifalds-I-Hind or the Poverty of India and Dharam Vichar which were reviewed well by British newspapers like the Homeland Mail.

The Amritsar Singh Sabha attacked Bhai Jawahar Singh Kapur and Bhai Ditt Singh for being Gulabdasis in the past.

He was also an editor on the Khalsa Akhbar.

Among them were Dit Singh, Jawahir. Singh and Maya Singh. What the Samaj managed to achieve in barely fifteen-months on several fronts including a new ideology, organization and membership, the Amritsar Sabha had failed to attain in six years. Its leadership was mostly made up of men who had no background in anglo-vernacular education and the intricacies of'print culture'.

A monthly journal, Sudhiirak, was also launched by Gurrnukh Singh in 1886. Behind the continuous expansion of the Lahore Sabha in the 1880s stood three men: Jawahir Singh, Giani Dit Singh and Attar Singh of Bhadaur.

But already by 1886 Jawahir Singh was a Secretary of the Lahore Sabha and Dit Singh a speaker on its public platforms. It is possible that the two at the same time maintained contact with the Arya Samaj as well. But it seems more likely that they had left the Samaj by 1886, much before the virulent attack by Pandit Lekh Ram and Lala Guru Datta on Sikhism at the anniversary celebrations of the Lahore Arya Samaj in 1888.

He was apart of the new Punjabi elites

new elites. His biographical details distinctly represent many of the features that I have associated with an evolue class: the high ritual standing of an upper caste; a bureaucratic job, anglo-vernacular education, familarity and use of 'print culture' and an active promotion of new voluntary associations. Bhagat Lak:shman Singh called him 'the most learned Sikh of his time' .55 Born in 1859 at Amritsar to a family of granthis at the Golden Temple, hardly anything is known about his early upbringing, except that as a disciple of a Gulabdasi preacher Jawahir Singh travelled extensively when still very young with his religious preceptor. 56 At the age of seventeen, he joined the accounts department of the Sind-Punjab and Delhi Railway Company at Lahore. Administering railroad offices was to become a life-long vocation and in his later years Jawahir Singh rose to be a superintendant of the North-West Railways. 57

There was nothing in the ten principles of the Samaj, based on monotheism, omnipresence of God and a universal morality preaching love, justice and truth, that in any way conflicted with Sikhism, least of all with its Sanatan strand. While the Samaj was still in its infancy and needing to overcome several obstacles, particularly a growing opposition from the Hindu orthodoxy, Jawahir Singh took up in 1878 the position of Samaj secretary. It is remarkable that he came to occupy this high post when he was only nineteen years of age and continued to serve in it for the next five years.

In answer to a question by Mr. Stokes, a commission member; 'Would [he] exclude men of low caste ?', J awahir Singh answered 'yes'. When further pressed and asked if he would exclude them altogether, the Sabha's nominee, fmding himself cornered, somewhat revised his position and responded: Not altogether. They [the Sabha] would leave it to the Government to decide. By men of low caste I mean men of the lower middle class, and below that I mean the people whose manners and habits might not be suitable. A man of low social status might be able to pass a purely intellectual test, but might not be desirable otherwise; while in a system of patronage you can secure men of almost equal ability and education and also men of influence. 59 Two points merit attention from this brief statement. First, Jawahir Singh and the Sabha were not keen on competition from the lower castes or lower order, for posts in the highest echelons of the colonial administration. In fact they feared the masses.

On hearing this, Jawahir Singh stood up and resolutely informed his audience: 'In case you are interested in knowing the true state of Sikh religion, undertake a visit to the countryside. There you will fmd how Sikh traditions are going amiss. Our first responsibilty ought to be the reform and correction of folk Sikhism.'73

Singh Sabha Movement

The Amritsar Singh Sabha (ਅੰਮ੍ਰਿਤਸਰ ਸਿੰਘ ਸਭਾ), popularly known as Sanatan Singh Sabha (ਸਨਾਤਨ ਸਿੰਘ ਸਭਾ), was founded in 1873, "It was essentially original and Sanatan ('eternal'). The Sanatan Sikh (a term and formulation coined by Harjot Oberoi ) were the traditional Sikhs who were eventually marginalised.

Formation and Support
The Amritsar Singh Sabha was supported by Sujan Singh Bedi, the head of the Una Bedis, Sir Khem Singh Bedi, head of the Kallar Bedis, Sodhi Ram Narain Singh, the head of the Anandpur Sodhis, two Takhts- Anandpur Sahib and Patna Sahib, Baba Ujagar Singh Bhalla, head of the Rawalpindi Bhallas, Satguru Hari Singh, head of the Kukas, Akali Giana Singh and Akali Javand Singh, heads of the Nihang order, Mahant Narain Singh, Giani Hazara Singh, Giani Gian Singh, Giani Sardul Singh of the Nirmalas, Raja Thakur Singh Sandhawalia of Raja Sansi, Kanwar Bikram Singh of Faridkot, Kanwar Bikrama Singh of Kapurthala and Avtar Singh Vahiria of Thoha Khalsa.

Despite being named as the Amritsar Singh Sabha, the followers were mainly of West Punjab. They had their first meeting on the 1st of October 1873, although none of them provided structure despite their money and status. The Christian Missionaries had started gaining a footing in Punjab, when four Sikh students converted to the religion in Kapurthala, they had called in their first meeting wherein Udasis, Nirmalas, Granthis and Gianis attended at the Majithia Bunga, near the Akal Takht.

Their main ideology was to purify Sikh conduct in the villages, and they started it through making speeches and establishing Gurudwaras around Punjab. They did produce literature, but in an unorganized and limited manner, the main two being Baba Sumer Singh of Patna, Giani Gian Singh and Avatar Singh Vahiria who wrote the Khalsa Dharam Shastra. Giani Gian Singh was the first author who wrote the Sri Gurupurab Prakash in 1883. Then Raja Bikram Singh of Faridkot commissioned Giani Badan Singh Sekhavan to create an exegesis on the Guru Granth Sahib- known as the Faridkot Tika. The Rawalpindi Singh Sabha, a sister organization, was also created and was very successful.

Conflict with the Lahore Singh Sabha
The Amritsar Singh Sabha had started at the same time as the Arya Samaj Lahore had gained a footing in Punjab. They both had good relations, and many common Sikhs had supported and became the base of the Arya Samaj. Although in 1886, one Pandit Guru Dutt had made deregatory remarks against Guru Nanak, within a year men like Gurmukh Singh, Ditt Singh, Jawahar Singh Kapur and Maya Singh left the Arya Samaj at once and formed the Lahore Singh Sabha, to fight against the Arya Samaj's crusade against Sikhism. Within a year the Lahore Singh Sabha's organization was more impressive than what the former was able to do in six years. They used their Anglo-Vernacular education, print culture and media like newspapers to spread their modernized version of Sikhism. Originally the two sides were on good terms with each other, Sir Khem Singh Bedi was invited for the first session and Raja Thakur Singh Sandhawalia for the second. The Sri Guru Singh Sabha General had the two branches of the Amritsar and Lahore Singh Sabhas.

The schism first occurred when Baba Nihal Singh wrote the Khurshid Khalsa against the Lahore Singh Sabha, and was supported by all scholars of the Amritsar Singh Sabha. To start their 'cold war', the Lahore Singh Sabha created the Khalsa Diwan, Lahore and the Amritsar Singh Sabha created the Khalsa Diwan, Amritsar. The British were Machiavellian in their tactics and did not openly support either side, although tilted towards the Amritsar Singh Sabha during its begginging- with the Viceroy, Lord Dufferin, attending a meeting in April 1885. The Amritsar Singh Sabha and Lahore Singh Sabha continued their academic battles, fighting each other in their books and media. Bhai Harsha Singh of the Amritsar Singh Sabha started the newspaper Vidyarak to combat against the Khalsa Akhbar and Khalsa Gazette. The Lieutenant Governor of Punjab and Raja Bikram Singh of Faridkot were the two main patrons for the Khalsa Diwan, Amritsar.

The Amritsar Singh Sabha was also a movement for the Khatri elite of West Punjab, the religion that was followed by the elites of Maharaja Ranjit Singh. Whereas the Lahore Singh Sabha was a movement for the middle class, the socially downtrodden Mazhabis and the hardy Jatt stock of Sikhs. The leaders of the Amritsar Singh Sabha was composed of the old elites, whereas the Lahore Singh Sabha were the new elites. The final straw of the Amritsar Singh Sabha was the division created in the Khalsa Diwan, Amritsar- they separated the Khalsa Diwan, Amritsar into two parts- Mahan Khand for the aristocracy and Saman Khand for the common people. Sir Khem Singh Bedi led the former and Bhai Man Singh, manager of the Darbar Sahib, led the former.

Decline
Through constant academic bombardment and lack of modernization, since they stuck to novels and traditional methods like poetry, Dhadi Vaars, Granths etc, whereas they could not create printing presses and newspapers fast enough despite their status. The Khalsa College started by the Lahore Singh Sabha had also influenced the youth more than any other dynamic, the Amritsar Singh Sabha could not create a Sikh institution as grand as the Lahore Singh Sabha was able to. The Amritsar Singh Sabha was also not able to provide monetary funds as they did not wish to spend too much resources, whereas Sir Attar Singh of Bhadaur had spent almost all his monetary funds to provide for the Lahore Singh Sabha.

Slowly the Amritsar Singh Sabha's academic presence declined to only three Singh Sabhas (Amritsar, Rawalpindi and Faridkot) and the Sikh elite was quick to adopt the ideology of the Lahore Singh Sabha, which had also branched into many Sabhas, around 117 of them in different villages, districts and cities in North India- although some were made all the way in Burma, Malaysia and Hong Kong.

Beliefs
They believed that marriage ceremonies in Sikhism never had a direct form of conduct, and it could vary from family to family, culture to culture. They did not believe that Sikhism and Hinduism were the same religion, contrary to popular belief, but they differentiated between the two- so much that Sir Khem Singh Bedi in his Sanskar Bagh Rehatnama banned wearing the colour Saffron for Sikhs. They believed in spirits, witchcraft, casteism, the ability of dead saints to work miracles, good and bad omens, pilgrimage and many other theories which were criticized by Sikhs, saying that the Sabha was more of a magic show. They also believed that a Sikh may find solace in the Muslim Pir- Sakhi Sarwar or the Hindu Gugga Pir.

The Amritsar Singh Sabha was a more strict form of Sikhism, although they focused on traditional styles of preaching (speech, books, poetic meter, Dhadhis), traditional Indic terminology and traditional mindsets of the Khalsa. Neither side was political, although it was suspected that the Amritsar Singh Sabha was planning to resurrect Sikh rule in Punjab from the British, although possibly not as their leaders all accepted servitude, and Khem Singh Bedi even fought for the British against Ahmad Khan Kharral in the Revolt of 1857 and the rulers of Faridkot, Raja Sansi and Kapurthala had accepted the British.

They, although, were for the electrification of the Darbar Sahib and viewed it as a boon while the Lahore Singh Sabha argued that no mosque or church in the West, not even Westminster Abbey, had been electrified at that time and that it would have been a show of extravagance rather than the humility that the Gurus preached.

Fathey Singh or to Nihang Sikhs as Jathedar Akali Baba Fathey Singh Ji Nihang 96 Crori was the 9th Jathedar of Budha Dal, succeeding Akali Prahlad Singh, and disputed with Akali Gian Singh and Akali Prem Singh Vahiria.

Early Life
He was born in a Katoch Rajput family in Mahilpur, although lived in Tehri Garhwal, his family was close the the Maharajas of Garhwal.

Anglo-Sikh Wars
He was a part of the First Anglo-Sikh War and fought alongside Sham Singh Attariwala, the Akali-Nihangs from there mostly went to Patiala, although him and his contingent left for Anandpur Sahib, wherein he purchased the Shah Bagh from the Sodhis of Anandpur Sahib. When he received news of the Akali-Nihangs being defeated by the Patiala State Forces, he was declared the next Jathedar by his contingent. Whereas Akali Prehlad Singh was declared the Jathedar by the other one who left for Muktsar. Akali Fathey Singh then fought in the Battle of Chillianwala in West Punjab, and then left for Peshawar which he believed was the last bastion of the Sikh Empire left- although the battle ended up occurring at Gujrat. He fought alongside Bhai Maharaj Singh, although after the British ordered a 'Shoot-on-Sight' policy, he and his warband left for Bilaspur, where they were treated well by the Raja.

Jathedari Disputes
While the Second Anglo-Sikh War was going on, Akali Prehlad Singh's Akali-Nihangs then left for Nanded, and fought with an irregular army employed by the Patiala State under Major Ala Singh, Akali Prehlad Singh was then killed and another split occurred with one faction of Akali-Nihang detainees in Hyderabad Fort declaring Akali Prem Singh Vahiria as the successor, and another faction declaring Akali Gian Singh as the successor. He had good relations with both and gave each one of them five expensive horses. He even gave Akali Gian Singh the Shah Bagh in Anandpur Sahib for free, and it is currently maintained by their fourth generation descendants.

Amritsar Singh Sabha
He supported the Amritsar Singh Sabha and was a part of their first meeting in 1873, where Raja Thakur Singh Sandhawalia, Raja Bikram Singh of Faridkot, Kanwar Bikrama Singh of Kapurthala, Sir Khem Singh Bedi and many others participated. Unlike the other Akali-Nihangs he never removed his guns or his Kirpan from himself and hence generally stayed inside of the Princely States rather than the mainland British Raj.

Second Anglo-Afghan War and Death
During the Second Anglo-Afghan War, Akali Fathey Singh decided that the Akali-Nihangs had not faced war in a very long time, and to revive the martial spirit without loosing their hope due to declining numbers they could help the British. All three Jathedars sent some Akali-Nihangs with Akali Fathey Singh as part of an irregular force that helped the British against the Afghans. He had been killed in the Battle of Ali Masjid, the place where the Sikhs had captured in 1839 under the Sikh Empire. The Akali-Nihangs then advanced under the leadership of a British General, named Sir Samuel J. Browne. When the war was over Akali Teja Singh took over his Akali-Nihangs.

Early life
Akali Gian Singh was born in a Deol Jatt Sikh family from Mulanpur.

First Anglo-Sikh War
After the Battle of Sobroan, the Akali-Nihangs had decided to take refuge at the present day site of Gurdwara Dukh Niwaran (which used to be a garden allotted by Maharaja Karam Singh to the Akali-Nihangs). However, Maharaja Narinder Singh decided to attack the Akali-Nihangs with all of the Patiala State’s artillery. This resulted in the death of the Jathedar, but a small group of Akali-Nihangs had managed to survive the deadly attacks. They gathered at Mithasar, where they collectively agreed to give the leadership to Akali Prehlad Singh and decided to embark on a journey to Hazur Sahib.

Hazur Sahib Conflict
Upon reaching the shrine at Nanded, there was a conflict between Major Ala Singh the Patiala State. The Akali-Nihangs wanted to take over the Maharaja of Patiala's property in Haridwar, Kaithal and Nanded. Major Ala Singh, dressed as an irregular, with a group of Sikhs fought against the Akali-Nihangs. Akali Prehlad Singh and Major Ala Singh were both killed in the conflict. It caused a ruckus in Nanded and the Hyderabad Police (Nanded came under the Hyderabad State) confiscated the Nishan Sahibs (battle standards) and matchlocks of the Akali-Nihangs. The last remaining Akali-Nihangs had decided to go into hiding and lived in the jungles (located the outskirts of Nanded) and decided to make Akali Gian Singh the next leader. The Nizam of Hyderabad was asked by the Maharaja of Patiala to cut down to forest so that they could not hide and regroup in it. Upon a decade or so in hiding, it was decided that the Akali-Nihangs should go back to Punjab.

Jathedari Disputes
The Akali-Nihangs in Nanded believed that Akali Prem Singh Vahiria would be the new Jathedar and the Akali-Nihangs who left for the Shivalik Hills after the First Anglo-Sikh War nominated Akali Fathey Singh as the next Jathedar. This split did not affect the people as they had cordial relations, made decisions together and elected the same successor- Akali Teja Singh.

Criminal Tribes Act
The Akali-Nihangs had come under the Criminal Tribes Act of the British, and hence were put under a shoot on sight, 13,000,000 people from 127 tribes became born as criminals. Akali Gian Singh used to ask Akali-Nihangs to carry sticks, so that if police or soldiers find the Akali-Nihangs, they would show them only a stick and hide their weaponry.

Except for Akali Sawan Singh Vangru, Akali Prem Singh Vahiria, Akali Fathey Singh and Akali Gian Singh there were no other Nihang groups left. Every Sarpanch had to disarm the Sikhs and if any weapons were found then it was them who would be in jail and their families who would be evicted from their lands. The only weapon the Sikhs could keep was a small dagger; the modern Kirpan. A few 1,000 people were put in jail and anyone with weapons were declared bandits. Then the British put over 2,500 horsemen and 5,000 police to specifically hunt the Akali-Nihangs down.

Anyone dressed in the Akali-Nihang clothing was shot and ambushed. In Punjab the Nihangs would start making wooden swords and guns so that when the soldiers would come they would show the British wooden swords and guns but when they left they would take the real swords and guns out. In 1875 the Akali-Nihangs returned back to the Punjab and they had a deal cut with the British and Phulkian States that they would help in law enforcement in Punjab. Later they became a prestiged part of the Punjab, attending visits from the King and Queen and being part of Royal Durbars.

Life in Punjab and Death
After conducting Ardas at the Takht of Nanded, the Akali-Nihangs decided to had back to Punjab and based themselves at Anandpur Sahib, at Sahib Shahid Bagh which was owned by Akali Fathey Singh, who gave it to him for free. He sent a few Akali-Nihangs under Akali Fathey Singh to participate in the Second Anglo-Afghan War. Akali Gian Singh died at the old age of 105, and Akali Teja Singh took over his group of Akali-Nihangs.

Early Life
Akali Prem Singh was born in a Bhatra family and is believed to have joined Budha Dal at a young age (during the times of Akali Hanuman Singh). His warband of Akali-Nihangs was part of the Panchayati Revolution on the side of the Khalsa Panchayat.

First Anglo-Sikh War
After the Battle of Sobroan, the Akali-Nihangs had decided to take refuge at the present day site of Gurdwara Dukh Niwaran (which used to be a garden allotted by Maharaja Karam Singh to the Nihangs). However, Maharaja Narinder Singh decided to attack the Akali-Nihangs with all of the Patiala State’s artillery. This resulted in the death of the Jathedar, but a small group of Nihangs had managed to survive the deadly attacks. They gathered at Mithasar, where they collectively agreed to give the leadership to Akali Prehlad Singh and decided to embark on a journey to Hazur Sahib.

Conflict at Nanded
Upon reaching the shrine at Nanded, there was a conflict between Major Ala Singh the Patiala State. The Akali-Nihangs wanted to take over the Maharaja of Patiala's property in Haridwar, Kaithal and Nanded. Major Ala Singh, dressed as an irregular, with a group of Sikhs fought against the Akali-Nihangs. Jathedar Baba Prehlad Singh and Major Ala Singh were both killed in the conflict. It caused a ruckus in Nanded and the Hyderabad Police (Nanded came under the Hyderabad State) confiscated the Nishan Sahibs (battle standards) and matchlocks of the Akali-Nihangs. The last remaining Akali-Nihangs had decided to go into hiding and lived in the jungles (located the outskirts of Nanded) and decided to make Akali Giana Singh the next leader. The Nizam of Hyderabad was asked by the Maharaja of Patiala to cut down to forest so that they could not hide and regroup in it. Upon a decade or so in hiding, it was decided that the Akali-Nihangs should go back to Punjab.

Jathedari Disputes
The Akali-Nihangs in Nanded believed that Akali Prem Singh Vahiria would be the new Jathedar and the Akali-Nihangs who left for the Shivalik Hills after the First Anglo-Sikh War nominated Akali Fathey Singh as the next Jathedar. This split did not affect the people as they had cordial relations, made decisions together and elected the same successor- Akali Teja Singh.

Retrieval of Nishan Sahibs
Akali Giana Singh and Akali Prem Singh Vahiria decided to get the Nishan Sahibs back from the Nizam of Hyderabad. Akali Prem Singh went to the palace of the Nizam of Hyderabad, but was not allowed to enter by the Palace’s guards. However, Akali Prem Singh remained resilient and had decided to wait in front of one the gates. After several days of standing, Akali Prem Singh’s body began to swell and eventually rumors about the Akali-Nihang had spread to the palace’s court. It had eventually reached the Nizam, who then decided to send the Prime Minister, a Sehajdhari Sikh named Chandu Lal Malhotra of the State to inquire. He met the Nihang with a lot of respect and decided to get his treatment done, upon which the Nishan Sahibs were given back to the Nihangs. Prior to leaving, the Prime Minister also got a resolution passed ending the conflict between the Nanded Sikhs and Budha Dal.

Return to Punjab
During his time as the Jathedar he had constructed a Hansali for the Baba Bakala Sarovar, did Seva of the Puratan Mata Sahib Deva Asthan building, built Diwan Asthan under Akali Naina Singh’s name (At Bibeksar) and established many Chaunis in the name of Budha Dal with Akali Gian Singh. Under the Jathedari of Akali Prem Singh, he ran the Vaheer of the Akali-Nihang Singhs for 11 years and did parchar of Akali-Nihangs all across India. He also played a key role in settling the feud between the Akali-Nihangs and the British and helped establish a good relationship with the Phulkian Maharajas.

Delhi Durbar of 1911 and Death
During the Delhi Darbar of 1911, Akali Prem Singh was honored by the British and was given 6 Teghas (swords). He passed away shortly after.

First Khalistan Liberation War
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Indian Army
Total 790,380
 * BSF Border Security Force 175,000 (158 battalions. Half patrolling against kharkus)
 * Punjab Police 70,000
 * Police from other states sent to help 75,000
 * Special Police Officers 40,000
 * Intelligence Personnel 5,000
 * Home Guards 25,000
 * CRPF Central Reserve Police Force 150,000 (134 battalions)
 * ITBP Indo Tibetan Border Police 30,000
 * CISF Central Industrial Security Force 90,000
 * NSG National Security Guard 6,500
 * SSG Special Security Guard 10,000
 * IRF Indian Reserve Force 16,500 (15 battalions)
 * Assam Rifles 35,000 (31 battalions)
 * Rashtriya Rifles 40,000 (36 battalions)
 * Border Security Force Cats 5,000
 * Fauj-E-Alam Mujahideen 3,000
 * Shiv Sena (Jalota) 700
 * Shiv Sena (Tangri) 550
 * Hindu Suraksha Samiti 300
 * Tarna Dal 1,200
 * Virk Sena 200
 * Vaidya Commando Force 900
 * Indian Lions 90-150
 * Indian National Army 100
 * Zabar te Firkaprasti Virodhi Front 80
 * Brigade of Red Guards 3,500
 * Brigade of Shaheed Kartar Singh Sarabha 2,000

Royal Army of Khalistan
Total 4,800
 * Babbar Khalsa 1,200
 * Bhindranwala Tiger Force of Khalistan 500
 * Khalistan Commando Force 750
 * Khalistan Liberation Army 300
 * Khalistan Liberation Force 850
 * Dashmesh Regiment 200
 * Unorganized 1,000

Revenue
Land revenue was the main source of income, accounting for about 70% of the state's income. Besides this, the other sources of income were customs, excises and monopolies.

Agriculture
Despite most portrayals of Punjab being an agriculturally dominant area- it was not a very common profession during Maharaja Ranjit Singh's time. When the British came into Punjab after the Second Anglo-Sikh War, they discussed about keeping it independent even, due to the fact that their land was not irrigated at all and did not give much produce. Later during colonial rule West Punjab was irrigated through canals and diverting rivers. The Sikh Empire followed two systems simultaneously, the Jagirdhari system and the Bataidari system, the former for the ancestral properties and the latter for common land seized after conquest. The Bataidari system was particularly corrupt and generally only used in case of good harvest. In 1830 when it was implemented, Ranjit Singh farmed out the country to contractors (ijardars). When crops failed, an unaccountable amount of revenue was charged. There was no fixed plan for crop failure, floods or any other agriculture-related issues. They had to seek redress from contractors themselves who were working to exploit the local farmers.

The contractors employed Rohillas as their servants who had cruel methods to recover their dues, including cutting the Sikhs Kesh, putting heavy loads on their heads and making them stand with a cot between their legs for several hours. They seized their womenfolk and let in rats and mice into their trousers. It was generally the Jatts who were exploited under the system, as they were local farmers. The Majha area was the only agriculture-based region but they produced seasonal vegetables would make up a substantial part of the diet, with crops like karela (bitter gourd), sarson (mustard seeds), baingan (aubergine), matar (peas), gullar (cluster fig) and tar (Armenian cucumber), bhindi (okra), tori (Chinese okra), with seasonal fruits like amla (gooseberry) and amb (mango). These vegetables and fruits would be pickled to ensure for long-term preservation. Grains like jowar (sorghum) and bajra (millet) would comprise most of the wheat consumption before kanak (common wheat) was readily grown in Punjab. Alongside these grains, grams like lentils and chickpeas would be a staple of Punjabi diet.

Many contemporary authors noted how people longed at this point for the British rule, as the excess seems to have increased after death of Ranjit Singh."God listened to the complaints of the people (parja) and granted them the British Raj. The comfort (sukh) enjoyed by the Jatts now, was never experienced under any king, raja or Maharaja."

Trade
The Sikh Empire had various Sikh and Khatri inroads into India, Central Asia, China, Russia and Europe. The trade into Central Asia was mainly done by Sikhs and Khatris, who had settlements in cities and were a common sight there, especially in Samarkand, Kabul, Herat and around the Caspian Sea. Afghanistan and British India also had a running trade with the Sikh Empire which was mainly export-based whereas China and Europe were import-based.

The Sikh Empire had paid the Amirs of Sindh (who gave the Sikh Empire regular tribute) to give them a port in Karachi, the port is currently known as Lahori Port and ships used to go there to trade in Arabia and East Africa. Europeans had also started arriving in Punjab frequently trading gunpowder, they had given Punjab many inventions such as telescopes, carbines, steam-boats, thermometers, cameras et cetera although most of these were kept by the Europeans or sold at high prices to rich businessmen.

Inside of the Sikh Empire the Khatris, Baniyas, Sindhis and Tibetans kept the trade going. In Multan the trade was dependent on jewelry, animal husbandry (mainly falconry) and textiles. The trade from Ladakh was mainly shawls and luxury goods. The Himachal region traded stone, timber, handcrafts, artwork and opium. The Shahpur-Rawalpindi area traded dates, salt, spices and camels. The Malwa region of Punjab which was not under the Sikh Empire traded in agriculture, textiles (Phulkari), spices and horses. Kashmir had similar trade except they also had shawls, silver, gold and saffron. The North West Frontier Province traded rice, fruits, arms and metal. Local Gujjars provided cattle and dairy products British India was able to provide wheat, tomatoes and corn which slowly spread and became staples after colonial rule.