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The Berdache: Interpretations

The term berdache derives from the Arab term “bradaj”, which is translated to male prostitute. American scholars often referred to them as the “third sex”, “fourth sex”, “two spirited persons”, and “man/woman”. The terms used to refer to the berdache varied between tribes: the Zuni Indians used the term la’mana, the Tewa referred to them as the quetho, and the Navajo as the nadle. There are several interpretations of what the definition of the berdache is and where they originate from. James Steel Thayer argues in “The Berdache of the Northern Plains: A Socioreligious Perspective”, that the berdache consist of a “dream cults”, which were formed when shamans who had a sacred or wakan dreams or visions about a specific supernatural person or theme. When individuals shared common ground on what their dreams consisted of, these cults were formed. The berdache cult did not perform common ceremonies but in fact followed a common vocation and lifestyle based on the content of their dreams or supernatural visions. (Thayer, 289). What the berdache’s dreams were composed of typically involved consistent dreams of the buffalo, buffalo hermaphrodite or of the moon being. All of these characters were viewed as feminine symbols. The moon is often universally perceived as feminine. In their dreams, the individual was presented with two different sets of objects: the masculine tools which consisted of instruments of war or hunting and the feminine principles such as the moon. Throughout the dream, the young man would make a decision between the objects, if he chose the feminine symbols the individual would then take on the life of a berdache. It was clear to the young men that these dreams and visions were to be taken as a sign that they were to take up the mannerisms and lifestyle of a female. Not all of these young men desired to live the lifestyle of a woman and as a result, some committed suicide. Thayer also mentions that the Arapaho tribe believed that the berdache came to be as a gift from the animals and birds. “Mythological berdaches” were believed to have the ability to perform supernatural things. Another psychological theory about how the berdache came about discussed by Thayer suggests that the berdache chose the female lifestyle because of the strict differences between gender roles. The berdache’s lack of masculinity may have caused him to reject the masculine lifestyle and settle for the feminine lifestyle. (Thayer, 289) There was a common theory that stated that transvestism could be found where gender roles were completely distinct, and the potential transvestite would have little to gain by switching roles. The findings of Thayer showed otherwise, in fact where gender differences were not heavily emphasized in regards to kinship, terminology, residence, authority succession, eating arrangements and attendance at birth there was a higher rate of male transvestism. Tribes such as the Cheyenne, Arapaho and the Plains Cree believed that the berdache possessed supernatural powers intended for the purpose of healing as well as shamanistic powers. (Thayer, 290) Other than the berdache’s power to heal, they also possessed “natural” talents such as being good company and fine talkers. They were often invited to war parties, if scalps were obtained, they were responsible for bringing them back to camp and arranging “scalp dances”. (Thayer, 290) Berdache’s were also seen as matchmakers and “love talkers” which explains why they were so popular among the youth. (Thayer, 290) Tribes such as the Dakota believed that the berdache had ritual duties or privileges, for example the right to give an infant a second name at their name ceremony. (Thayer, 290) The berdache were highly valued in tribes such as the Cheyenne because of their social and ritual status. (Thayer, 290) In the Northern Plains, tribes had mixed feelings about the berdache, they were praised because of their ritual and ceremonial powers as well as their female talents. Aside from being praised, the berdache were also feared because of their vision and their feminine lifestyle. For example, among the Dakota tribe, young men were told to stay away from the tipis in which the berdache resided in. It was said that the consequence of disregarding this advice would result in them becoming the berdache’s lovers, this would cause them to suffer in the land beyond because they would be tortured by the berdache. (Thayer, 290) As opposed to Thayer who described the berdache’s life with some appraisal, Ramon Gutierrez describes the life of the berdache in the Southwest as humiliating and full of endless work. Gutierrez discusses how both Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca and Francisco Lopez de Gomera had similar observations of the berdache they encountered. Nunez Cabeza de Vaca described the tribes he saw in Texas, New Mexico and Southern Arizona. He witnessed what he describes as wicked behavior, men married to one another. He also observed how the berdache were not allowed to touch any bow and arrows, they performed woman tasks and they were forced to carry great loads. (Gutierrez, 21) From his observations, Francisco Lopez de Gomera concluded two things about the berdache: first that they were impotent or castrated. Second, Gomera also noticed that the berdache were not allowed to use bows and arrows or any other instruments of war. (Gutierrez, 22) Gomera also noted how the berdache marched into battle with with warriors but they carried their heavy loads. (Gutierrez, 22) Coronado led an expedition into Culiacan Sinaloa, near Southern Arizona, where they discovered transvestite women, which Pedro Castaneda describes as “grand sodomites” because of the fact that they are men enjoying sexual services from other men. (Gutierrez, 22) Castaneda then describes a berdache initiation from 1540 in which a male was transvested into female clothing in a ceremonial chamber. He then describes how the dignitaries came in and utilized the berdache sexually. From that moment on, the berdache was not allowed to deny herself sexually to anyone who offered pay, even though she might take a husband. (Gutierrez, 23) Another soldier on Coronado’s expedition, reported that the berdache were prohibited from having sexual relations with women but they could be used by marriageable youth. The chiefs had their own berdache, if somebody wanted to have sex with these berdache, they would have to pay. As a result, the Spaniards referred to the berdache as “putos”, which translates to male whores. (Gutierrez, 23) Dr. William A. Hammond traveled through New Mexico and met transvested men in the pueblos of Laguna and Acoma. The berdache that resided there were described as the people that were used in orgies in which Indians perform. (Gutierrez, 23) Gutierrez also describes a more modern tribe called the Zuni, located in western New Mexico. The three American anthropologists describe a group of people named the la’mana, who perform similar activities as the berdache such as cross dressing, performing woman duties and servicing men. (Gutierrez, 24) During religious rituals, la’mana would use woman clothing, perform woman dances and comb their hair like a woman. One of the anthropologists, Matilda Coxe Stevenson, observed how the men in the family not only discouraged other men from becoming la’mana but also ridiculed them. Family members were ashamed to have a la’mana as part of their family. (Gutierrez, 24) Over all Gutierrez explains that the berdache in the Southwest exist because they are captures war trophies who are not allowed in war other than to carry heavy loads, provide sex services to other men, and perform female labor. In Pueblo society, men do not carry any weight, the elderly and women are the ones who do the heavy lifting because they are the least valued. (Gutierrez, 21) Woman duties include, digging and bringing firewood and water to the home, and prepare anything else they may need. The Pueblo women only receive six hours of rest; the remaining eighteen hours are spent working. (Gutierrez, 21) The berdache are forced to perform the same amount of work as the women, therefore Pueblos value the berdache to the same extent if not less as women. Berdache in the Plains as described by Thayer are valued because of the belief that they have shamanistic powers, and ritual duties or privileges. Although they are not fully trusted by their societies, they are valued to a certain extent. As opposed to the berdache in the Southwest, who are used for other men’s sexual pleasure, forced to do woman work and are captured war trophies. Despite the berdache skeptics in the plains, they are treated well according to Thayer. Because researchers such as Thayer gave somewhat of a positive view of the berdache such as their shamanistic healing powers, the Gay Liberations Movement often misinterpret the berdache. According to Gutierrez, the Gay Liberations movement viewed the berdache as an identity that is acceptable in Pueblo society and should be utilized as a historical model for acceptance. When in fact the berdache were often ridiculed and perceived negatively in pueblo society. (Gutierrez, 21)

References Gutierrez, Ramon A. "Warfare, Homosexuality, and Gender Status Among American Indian Men in the Southwest." Long before Stonewall: Histories of Same-sex Sexuality in Early America. Ed. Thomas A. Foster. New York: New York UP, 2007. N. page. Print. Thayer, James Steel. "The Berdache of the Northern Plains: A Socioreligious Perspective." Journal of Anthropological Research 36, no. 3 (1980): 287-93.