User:Muzi Yan/sandbox

Han Dynasty (206 BC–220 AD)
During the Han dynasty, the rise of Confucianism which regarded human as the center of the universe and the society led to a focus on psychological study. In the meantime, Taoist scholars started the study of physiognomy. The combining interests in psychological and physical features of human caused the grows in biography and portraiture. Portrait paintings created during the Han Dynasty were considered prototype of the earliest Chinese portrait painting, most of which were found on the walls of palace hall, tomb chambers, and offering shrines. For instance, the engraved figure of a man found in the tomb tile from Western Honan dating back to the third century B.C. indicates the painter’s observation and desire to create lively figures. However, the subjects of most wall portraits are anonymous figures engaging in conversation. Despite of the vivid depiction of physical features and facial expression, due to the lack of identity and the closed bound to narrative context, many scholars categorize these the Han dynasty wall paintings as “character figures in action” instead of actual portrait a specific person.

Jin Dynasty (265-410 AD)
The Jin dynasty is one of the most turbulent periods in ancient Chinese history. After the one-hundred years of wars between the three states of Wei, Shu, and Wu from 184 to 280 AD, Sima Yan, the prince of Wu, finally founded the Western Jin in 266 AD. The unstable socio-political environment and the declining imperial authority resulted in a transition from Confucianism to Neo-Daoism. As the attitude of breaking social hierarchy and decorum flourished, self-expression and individualism started to grow among the intelligentsia.

Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove and Rong Qiqi is a thread-relief painting on tile found in a Jin-dynasty brick-chambered tomb in Nanjing, China. The relief is 96 inches in length and 35 inches in width, with more than 300 bricks. It is one of the most well-preserved thread-relief painting during the Jin dynasty which reflects high-quality craftsmanship. There are two parts of the relief and each contains four figure portraits. According to the names inscribed next to the figures, from the top to the bottom, and from the left to the right, the eight figures are Rong Qiqi, Ruan Xian, Liu Ling, Xiang Xiu, Ji Kang, Ruan Ji, Shan Tao, and Wang Rong. Other than Rong Qiqi, the other seven people were famous Neo-Daoism scholars during the Jin dynasty and were named as “the Seven Sages". They were eminent intelligentsias accomplished at literature, music, or philosophy. The relief depicts a narrative scene of the eight cultivated gentlemen sitting on the ground in the grove performing various activities. The figures were portrayed in a relaxed and self-absorbed posture wearing loose garments with bare feet.

The historically-recorded name inscriptions next to the figures cause the relief painting functions as “portraiture represents specific people”. In addition, the iconographic details of each figure based on biography renders an extent of individualization. For instance, the biography of Liu Ling in the Book of Jin records his obsession with alcohol. In the relief paining, the figure of Liu Ling sits in a casual posture with a curving knee and holds an erbei,a vessel for alcohol, while dipping the other hand into the cup to have a taste of the drink.The portrait reflects the essence of Liu Ling’s characteristics and temperament. The figure of Ruan Xian who was famous for musical talents according to the Book of Jin plays a flute in the portrait.

Gu Kaizhi, one of the most famous artists in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, instructed how to reflect the sitter’s characteristics through accurate portray of the physical features in his book On Painting. He also stressed the capture of the sitter's spirit through vivid depiction of eyes.

Tang Dynasty (618-907 AD)
During Tang dynasty, there was an increase of humanization and personalization in portrait painting. Due to the influx of Buddhism, the painting portrait adopted a more realistic likeness, especially for the portraits of the monks. The belief in “temporal incorruptibility” of the immortal body in Mahayana Buddhism linked the presence in an image with the presence in reality. Portrait was regarded as the visual embodiment and substitute of a real person. Thus, the true likeness was highly valued in the paintings and statues of the monks. The Tang dynasty mural portrait painting values the spiritual quality -- the “animation through spirit consonance” (qi yun shen tong).

In terms of the imperial portrait, Taizong, the second emperor of Tang dynasty, used portraits to legitimize succession and reinforce power. He commissioned the Portrait of Succession Emperors, which contains the portraits of 13 emperors in the previous dynasties in chronological order. The commonness among the selected emperors was that they were the son of the founders of the dynasties. Since Taizong's father Gaozu was the founder of the Tang dynasty, Taizong’s selection of the previous emperors in the similar position of himself served as a political allusion. His succession was under doubt and criticism since he murdered two of his brothers and forced his father Gaozu to pass the throne to him. Through commissioning the collective portraits of the previous emperors, he aimed at legitimize the transmission of the reign. In addition, the difference in the costumes of the portrayed emperors implied Taizong’s opinion on them. The emperors portrayed in informal costumes were regarded as the bad examples of a ruler such as being weak or violent, while the ones in formal dresses were thought to accomplish either civil or military achievements. The commission was an indirect method of Taizong to proclaim his achievements had surpassed the precedent emperors. Taizong also commissioned a series of portrait paintings of famous scholars and intellectuals before he became the emperor. He attempted to befriend with the intellectuals by putting the portraits on the wall of Pingyan Pavilion as a signal of respect. The portraits also served as evidence that he had gained political support from the portrayed famous scholars to frighten his opponents. During his reign, Taizong commissioned portraits of himself receiving offerings from the ambassadors of the conquered foreign countries to celebrate and advertise his military achievements.

Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD)
During the Song Dynasty, emperor Gaozong commissioned Portraits of Confucius and Seventy-two Disciples (Sheng xian tu) on blank ground with his handwritten inscription. The figures were portrayed in vivid lines, animated gestures, and the facial expressions were rendered a narrative quality. The portrait of the saints and his disciples was found on a stone tablet on the wall of Imperial University as a  moral code to educate the students. However, scholars argued that Gaozong's true purpose of the commission was to announce that his policies were supported by the Confucianism as well as his control over the Confucian heritage.

Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368 AD)
The Yuan dynasty is a watershed in Chinese ancient history. After the Mongol imperial court conquered the Chinese mainland and ended the Song Dynasty, the traditional Chines intelligentsia were left in a dilemma situation of choosing between reclusion from the exotic government or pursuit in political career. Portrait painting of “Man of culture”(wen ren hua) at that period reflects this dilemma. For instance, Portrait of Yang Qian depicted him standing in a bamboo forest. While the bamboo symbolizes his moral rightness, the half-enclosed and half-opened space in the background alludes to his potential of choosing between reclusion and serve in the Mongol government.

In terms of imperial portrait, the portrait of Khubilai and the Portrait of Chabi by Mongol imperial painter Anige in 1294 reflect the fusion of the traditional Chinese imperial portrait techniques and the Himalayan-Mongol aesthetic value. The Khan Khubilai was portrayed as an elder man while the Queen Chabi was depicted in youth, both wearing traditional Mongolian imperial costume. Anige adopted the Chinese portrait technique such as outlining the shape with ink and reinforcing the shape with color. Whereas the highlights on Chabi’s jewelry with the same hue but lighter value proved to be a continuation of the Himalayan style. The full frontal orientation of the sitters and their centered pupil add a confrontational impact to the viewer, which reflect the Nepali aesthetics and style. The highly symmetrical composition and the rigid depiction of hair and clothes differed from the previous Song court painting style. There is little implication on the moral merit of the sitters or their personality, indicating a detachment of the painter from the sitter, which contradicts with the Song dynasty's emphasis on the capture of the spirit.

Qing Dynasty (1636-1912 AD)
During the Qing dynasty, the eighteenth century European masquerade court portraiture which portrayed the aristocrats engaging in various activities in different costumes was imported to China. Emperor Yongzheng and his son emperor Qianlong commissioned a number of masquerade portrait paintings with various political implications. In most of Yongzheng’s masquerade portrait, he wears exotic costumes such as the suit of the European gentleman. The lack of inscription on the portrait painting leaves his intention unclear, but some scholars believe the exotic costume reflects his interest in foreign culture and desire to rule the world. Compared with Yongzheng’s ambiguous attitude, emperor Qianlong wrote inscriptions on his masquerade portraits to announce his philosophy of “the Way of ruling” which was to conceal and to deceive so that his subordinates and enemies cannot trace his strategies. Compared with Yongzheng’s enthusiasm in exotic costume, Qianlong showed more interest in Chinese traditional costume such as dressing as a Confucian scholar, Taoist priest, and Buddhist monk, which manifests his desire in conquer the traditional Chinese heritage.

Qianlong commissioned the Spring’s Peaceful Message after he succeeded the throne from his father Yongzheng, which is a double portrait painting of him and Yongzheng dressing as Confucius scholars instead of traditional Manchu emperor robe standing side by side next to bamboos. Scholars believe that the commission aimed to legitimize his succession of the throne by emphasizing the physical similarity between him and his father such as facial structure, identical costume and hairstyle. The bamboo forest in the background indicate their moral righteousness proposed by the traditional Confucianism. The portrait depicts Yongzheng, who is in a larger scale, handing a flowering branch to Qianlong as a political metaphor of the imperial authority to reign. Qianlong also advertised his filial piety proposed by Confucianism by posing in a modest gesture.

Portrait Painting of Women from Han to Qing Dynasty
Portrait painting of women in ancient China from the Han to the Qing Dynasty (206 B.C. – 1912 CE) developed under great impact of the Confucian patriarchal cosmology, however, the subject and the style varied according to the culture of each dynasty.

In the Han dynasty (206 B.C.- A.D. 220), women in the portrait painting were mainly a type rather than specific individual. The major subject was idealized exemplary women (lie nu) with virtues prompted by Confucianism such as chastity, three-fold obedience (san cong) to father, husband, son. Gu Kaizhi’s handscroll Exemplary Women (lienu tu) which was created shortly after the Han dynasty represents this genre.

In the Tang dynasty (618-906 A.D.), palace women (shi nu) performing daily chores or entertainment became popular subject. The feminine beauty and charm of the palace ladies are valued, but the subject remained nonspecific under the painting name “Palace Ladies”. Characteristics encouraged by the Confucianism including submissive and agreeable were encompassed as standards of beauty and emphasized in the portrait. Painters pursued correctness and  likeness of the sitter and aimed to reveal the purity of the soul.

In the Song dynasty (960-1279 A.D.), portrait paintings of women were created based on love poems written by court poets. Although depicted as living in luxurious fashion and comfortable housing, women in the painting were usually portrayed as lonely and melancholy because they feel deserted or trapped in the domestic chores while their husbands staying outside and pursuing their career. Common settings include empty garden path and empty platform couch which hint the absence of male figure. Common background include flowering trees which were associated with beauty and banana trees which symbolized vulnerability of women.

In the Ming dynasty (1368-1644 A.D.), literati painting (wenren hua) which combined painting, calligraphy, and poetry became popular trend among the elites. Most women in the literati painting were abstract figures serving as visual metaphor and remained nonentity. In Qing dynasty (1644-1912), the literati painting gained more variety of brushstroke and use of bright color.