User:N8tegr8/AddictiveSandbox

= Addictive Personality =

Nate Newhouse & Austin Price
An addictive personality refers to a hypothesized set of personality traits that make an individual predisposed to developing addictions.This hypothesis states that there may be common personality traits observable in people suffering from addiction. The lack of a universally agreed upon definition has marked the research surrounding addictive personality. Addiction is a fairly broad term, which is most often associated with substance abuse but can be extended to cover a number of compulsive behaviors. For example people can be addicted to sex, internet, television, gambling, food, shopping and many other behaviors. It should also be noted that this is a fairly contentious topic with many experts suggesting the term be retired pointing to a lack of cumulative evidence supporting the existence of addictive personality. However, different personality traits have been linked to various types of addictive behaviors suggesting that individual addictions may be associated with different personality profiles. The strongest consensus is that genetic factors play the largest role in determining a predisposition for addictive behaviors. Even then genes play different roles in different types of addictions. Forty to seventy percent of the population variance in the expression of addictions can be explained by genetic factors.

Etiology
The following factors are believed to influence addiction susceptibility.

Psychological factors

 * Impulsivity
 * Sensation seeking
 * Nonconformity combined with weak commitment to socially valued goals for achievement
 * Social alienation and tolerance for deviance
 * Heightened stress coupled with lack of coping skills.

Some claim the existence of “addictive beliefs” in people more likely to develop addictions, such as “I cannot make an impact on my world” or “I am not good enough”, which may lead to developing traits associated with addiction, such as depression and emotional insecurity. People who strongly believe that they control their own lives and are mostly self-reliant in learning information (rather than relying on others) are less likely to become addicted. However, it is unclear whether these traits are causes, results or merely associated coincidentally. For example, depression due to physical disease can cause feelings of hopelessness that are mitigated after successful treatment of the underlying condition, and addiction can increase dependence on others.

Genetic factors
Individual traits can share common underlying factors or interact. For example, depression, poor self-control, and compulsive behavior are linked to neurotransmitter abnormalities, i.e., biological mechanisms. In laboratory studies with rats, only some rats develop a pattern of self-administration of stimulant drugs, supporting the existence of some inherent propensity for addictive tendencies. In these rats, a positive correlation was found between locomotor response to novel stimuli and the amount of amphetamine self-administered during the first few days of testing. Twin and adoption studies have shown genetic factors account for 50-60% of the risk for alcoholism. In early adolescence, social and familial factors play a more important role in the initiation of drug use but their importance fades with progression into adulthood.

Environmental factors
Studies have found numerous environmental factors that correlate with addiction. Exposure to sustained stress in childhood, such as physical or sexual abuse, especially accompanied by unpredictable parental behavior strongly correlates with drug addiction and overeating in adulthood. A lack of social interaction has also been shown to correlate with addictive tendencies; rats reared in isolation were quicker to develop a pattern of cocaine self-administration than rats reared in groups. It should be noted that there is a gene/environment connection in that individuals with particular personality traits may self-select into different environments, e.g., they may seek out work environments where addictive substances are more readily available.

Personality traits and addiction
Addiction is defined by scholars as “a reliance on a substance or behavior that the individual has little power to resist.” Substance-based addictions are those based upon the release of dopamine in the brain, upon which the range of sensations produced by the euphoric event in the brain changes the brain’s immediate behavior, causing more susceptibility for future addictions. Behavior-based addictions, on the other hand, are those that are not linked to neurological behavior as much and are thus thought to be linked to personality traits; it is this type of addiction that combines a behavior with a mental state and the repeated routine is therefore associated with the mental state.

Drug addiction
A group of British forensic psychologists and data scientists analyzed a new large database of users of psychoactive substances. To analyze the predisposition to drug use, they utilized 7 psychological traits, the Five Factor Model supplemented by Impulsivity and Sensation seeking:


 * N Neuroticism is a long-term tendency to experience negative emotions such as nervousness, tension, anxiety and depression (associated adjectives: anxious, self-pitying, tense, touchy, unstable, and worrying);
 * E Extraversion  is manifested in outgoing, warm, active, assertive, talkative, cheerful characters, often in search of stimulation (associated adjectives: active, assertive, energetic, enthusiastic, outgoing, and talkative);
 * O Openness to experience is a general appreciation for art, unusual ideas, and imaginative, creative, unconventional, and wide interests (associated adjectives: artistic, curious, imaginative, insightful, original, and wide interest);
 * A Agreeableness is a dimension of interpersonal relations, characterized by altruism, trust, modesty, kindness, compassion and cooperativeness (associated adjectives: appreciative, forgiving, generous, kind, sympathetic, and trusting);
 * C Conscientiousness is a tendency to be organized and dependable, strong-willed, persistent, reliable, and efficient (associated adjectives: efficient, organized, reliable, responsible, and thorough);
 * Imp Impulsivity is defined as a tendency to act without adequate forethought;
 * SS Sensation Seeking  is  defined by the search for experiences and feelings, that are varied, novel, complex and intense, and by the readiness to take risks for the sake of such experiences.

These factors are not statistically independent but the condition number of the correlation matrix is less than 10 and the multicollinearity effects are not expected to be strong.

The results of the detailed analysis of modern data support partially the hypothesis about psychological predisposition to addiction. The group of users of illicit drugs differs from the group of non-users for N, O, A, C, Imp, and SS. Symbolically, this difference is illustrates as follows:

$${\rm N}\Uparrow,{\rm O}\Uparrow, {\rm A}\Downarrow, {\rm C}\Downarrow, {\rm Imp}\Uparrow, {\rm SS}\Uparrow$$

(N, O, Imp, and SS scores are higher for users; A and C scores are lower for users).

The hypothesis about importance of E for addiction was not supported by this aggregated analysis of use of all illicit drugs.

Analysis of consumption of different drugs separately demonstrated that predisposition to use of different drugs is different. For all illicit drugs groups of their users have the following common properties:

$${\rm O}\Uparrow,{\rm C}\Downarrow, {\rm Imp}\Uparrow, {\rm SS}\Uparrow$$

(O, Imp, and SS scores are higher for users and C score is lower for users).

Deviation of N, E, and A scores for users of different drugs can be different. For example, heroin users have average profile

$${\rm N}\Uparrow, {\rm E}\Downarrow, {\rm O}\Uparrow, {\rm A}\Downarrow, {\rm C}\Downarrow, {\rm Imp}\Uparrow, {\rm SS}\Uparrow,$$

whereas for LSD and Ecstasy (the so-called "Party drugs") users N has no significant deviation from the population level and E can be higher.

Several personality profiles of risky behavior were identified by various researchers, for example $${\rm N}\Uparrow, {\rm C}\Downarrow$$ (Insecures) and $${\rm E}\Uparrow, {\rm C}\Downarrow $$(Impulsives, Hedonists). Various types of addictive personality have in common low C.

Internet Addiction
Internet addiction is associated with higher scores in neuroticism and lower scores in extraversion and conscientiousness. One explanation for the association with high neuroticism is that virtual environments may be regarded as more safe and comfortable by individuals with lower self-esteem and increased negative emotion (traits associated with high neuroticism) compared to real-life environments. Similarly, individuals with low extraversion that desire social interaction but are averse to face-to-face interaction may find the opportunity for online communication attractive.

Controversy
There is an ongoing debate about the question of whether an addictive personality really exists. There are two sides of this argument, each with many levels and variations. One side believes that there are certain traits and dimensions of personality that, if existent in a person, cause the person to be more prone to developing addictions throughout their life. The other side argues that addiction is in chemistry, as in how the brain’s synapses respond to neurotransmitters and is therefore not affected by personality. A major argument in favor of defining and labeling an addictive personality has to do with the human ability to make decisions and the notion of free will. This argument suggests human beings are aware of their actions and what the consequences of their own actions are and many choose against certain things because of this. This can be seen in that people are not forced to drink excessively or smoke every day, but it is within the reach of their own free will that some may choose to do so. Therefore, those with addictive personalities are high in neuroticism and hence choose to engage in riskier behaviors. The theory of addictive personalities agrees that there are two types of people: risk-takers and risk-averse. Risk-takers enjoy challenges, new experiences and want instant gratification. These people enjoy the excitement of danger and trying new things. On the other hand, risk-averse are those who are by nature cautious in what they do and the activities they involve themselves in. It is the personality traits of individuals that combine to create either a risk-taker or risk-averse person.

Another important concern is the lack of evidence supporting the addictive personality label and the possibility of stigma. While there is a medical consensus surrounding the genetic components of addiction, there is no such consensus supporting the idea that specific personality types have a tendency towards addictive behaviors. In fact, continued use of this term in the absence of clear evidence could be damaging to the people who believe they have an addictive personality.

Peer Review
First, I really liked what you did to the introduction paragraph. I believe you added more details that improved it has a whole. I think it was also wise to remove the quote from Alan R. Lang because it seems unnecessary to have included it. Your sources that you added are also reliable and relativity up to date.

I like how you added the studies done on twins in the genetic, physical, & environmental factors section. I think maybe you could even elaborate and add more studies done here if you wanted to. I think the study done on rats is important but I think it might be beneficial to explain what a locomotor response to novel stimuli means and what it says about genetics, for those who are unfamiliar with it.

I feel like more could be added to the interaction of biopsychosocial factors. Maybe add a specific example or even statics about certain SES and drug use or drug use in family's to help identify the importance of the environment as well considering so much was elaborated on genetics.

In the Description section I think it might be beneficial to have sub-headings similar to the Etiology. I think this would allow for more organization and easy access to a specific part.

Overall I think you both have done a great job! This was a really interesting topic to read about! ~