User:Nantwia1/sandbox

Invasion in Europe (section)
Across western and central Europe, the northern red oak has become the fourth-most popular invasive species, colonizing several regions across Poland, Belgium, and Lithuania. The northern red oak is primarily found on the edges of woodland reserves in Europe, where light availability, tannin concentration, and animal dispersal are the most necessary component for the species' longevity and survival. The high influx of the species in Europe is primarily based on its economic productivity as a fast-growing source of timber; however, it has been linked to lower percentages of trace elements and minerals found in the surrounding soil and reduced richness among native oak species such as Quercus robur.

Response to environmental conditions (section)
Over the last few decades, the northern red oak has dealt with several environmental factors, mainly disease, predation by insects, and limited opportunities for dispersal. These stresses have impacted the species' ability to proliferate in both the Northeast and Europe; however, ectomycorrhizal relationships between the northern red oak and various ascomycetes that coil at the base of the oak trunk have been observed. The various environmental responses observed in Quercus rubra across several temperate environmental conditions have allowed for it to serve as a model organism for studying symbiotic relationships, dispersal, and habituation between tree species.

Diseases (sub-heading)
Canker pathogen, Diplodia corticola, has become a major pathogen to the species over the last decade, causing leaf browning, bark cracking and bleeding, and high rates of tree mortality across the northeastern United States. The northern red oak is also characterized as one of the most susceptible species to plant fungi Phytophthora cinnamomi and Phytophthora ramorum, which have caused severe, red-black cankers in the trunk region of the species. Both P. cinnamomi and P. ramorum grow under warmer temperature conditions; as a result, northern red oak trees found in California, France, and northern Spain all have higher incidences of fungal infection.

Abiotic stress (sub-heading)
Northern red oak seedlings have been known to have a high mortality rate in northeast regions prone to spring freeze, particularly in Massachusetts. Acorns produced by oaks in this region are typically smaller in size as an adaptation to frost produced in high latitudes; however, the resulting smaller seedlings have produced limited opportunities for animal consumption and dispersal. Flooding along the continental United States has been shown to be a major issue for the northern red oak, in which decreased phloem transport and photosynthetic activity has been observed, but only after multiple days of flooding, indicating that the northern red oak has adapted moderate resistance to excess water exposure. The northern red oak has also developed tolerance mechanisms for heat stress, particularly observed in deciduous forests in the Southeastern United States, where, during summer heat waves, temperatures can exceed 40°C. The leaves of the northern red oak have been observed to have an acclimation to Rubisco activase activity that is directly correlated to acclimations with repeated exposure to heat waves. Consistent photosynthetic activity in the red oak has also been observed in the presence of high carbon dioxide levels that often occur as a result of elevated temperatures.

Animal foraging (sub-heading)
Acorns produced by the northern red oak have also become a foraging source among several moth species, particularly Cydia fagiglandana and Cydia splendana, to increase the breadth of their niches and avoid competition with Curculio weevils. Due to this, germination rates among the northern red oak acorns have decreased significantly and resulted in less seed dispersal by animals within Poland. In addition, limited opportunities for dispersal have become costly for the northern red oak in Europe. European animals known for dispersing tendencies, such as the European jay and wood mouse, have been found to be more attracted to local oak species. Northern red oak kernels have highly concentrated amounts of tannin, a biochemical known as a predator deterrent and produce a bitter taste, which has limited appeal for consumption among animal species.

Symbiotic relationships (section)
Quercus rubra has effective ectomycorrhizal relationships that have been correlated with increased growth rates. Northern red oak trees have been shown to increase growth in the presence of various ascomycetes that coil at the base of the oak trunk. The fungi, which eventually proliferate at the stumps of deciduous trees, have been found to be host-specific to both Quercus rubra and Quercus montana and primarily promote growth upon infection.

Invasion in Europe
Across western and central Europe, the northern red oak has become the fourth-most popular invasive species, colonizing several regions across Poland, Belgium, and Lithuania. The northern red oak is primarily found on the edges of woodland reserves in Europe, where light availability, tannin concentration, and animal dispersal are the most necessary component for the species' longevity and survival. The high influx of the species in Europe is primarily based on its economic productivity as a fast-growing source of timber; however, it has been linked to lower percentages of trace elements and minerals found in the surrounding soil and reduced richness among native oak species such as Quercus robur.
 * Note: So after studying the red oak a bit more, I realized that a lot of studies had been conducted in Europe in response to the very large invasion of northern red oaks that have taken place. The article makes no mention of this, but I thought, given how heavily it has been studied, it is worth making a section about the oak's invasion and the results stemming from it. There were many papers discussing the divided opinions of the invasion of Q. rubra in Europe, with some in favor of economic opportunity in timber production, while other conservationists have been worried about local species and the effect of Q. rubra on soil. I may add more information on this, but for now, I tried to keep it less biased.

Environmental response
Over the last few decades, the northern red oak has dealt with several environmental stresses, mainly disease, predation by insects, and limited opportunities for dispersal.
 * Description of some environmental stresses encountered:
 * Canker pathogen Diplodia corticola has become a major pathogen to the species over the last decade, causing leaf browning, bark cracking and bleeding, and high rates of tree mortality across the northeastern United States. The northern red oak is also characterized as one of the most susceptible species to plant fungus Phytophthora cinnamomi, which has caused severe cankers in the trunk region of the species.
 * Northern red oak seedlings have been known to have a high mortality rate in northeast regions prone to spring freeze, particularly in Massachusetts. Acorns produced by oaks in this region are typically smaller in size as an adaptation to frost produced in high latitudes; however, the resulting smaller seedlings have produced limited opportunities for animal consumption and dispersal.
 * Acorns produced by the northern red oak have also become a foraging source among several moth species, particularly Cydia fagiglandana and Cydia splendana, to increase their breadth of their niches and avoid competition with Curculio weevils. As a result, germination rates among the northern red oak acorns have decreased significantly and resulted in less seed dispersal by animals within Poland.
 * In addition, limited opportunities for dispersal have become costly for the northern red oak in Europe. European animals known for dispersing tendencies, such as the European jay and wood mouse, have been found to be more attracted to local oak species. Tannins, a biochemical known as a predator deterrent, are highly concentrated in the northern red oak acorn kernels and produce a bitter taste, which has limited appeal for consumption among animal species.

Bibliography and Possible Edit on Quercus rubra
Potential Ideas to Update the Page: Literature Cited
 * I think I would like to include a section of the northern red oak's adaptations and the various pathogens that have been specific to it. As I was looking at sources for the bibliography, I realized that the species' seedlings have been well studied, especially recently, as a model for dispersal. This may be subject to change and will require much more sources, but what I have seen so far could make good supporting information that explains its development. Some of the sources I found also focus on northern red oak stress tolerance, which is very interesting, but a little bit more organization would be needed to incorporate that as well.

Aizen, M. A. and H. Woodcock. 1996. Effects of acorn size on seedling survival and growth on Quercus rubra following simulated spring freeze. Canadian Journal of Botany 74: 308-314.

Ashton, P. M. S. and G. P. Berlyn. 1994. A comparison of leaf physiology and anatomy of Quercus (section Erthyrobalanus - Fagaceae) species in different light environments. American Journal of Botany 8: 589-597.

Dickie, I. A., R. T. Koide, and K. C. Steiner. 2002. Influences of established trees on mycorrhizas, nutrition, and growth of Quercus rubra seedlings. Ecological Monographs 72: 505-521.

Jagodzinski, A. M., M. K. Dyderski, P. Horodecki, and K. Rawlik. 2017. Limited dispersal prevents Quercus rubra invasion in a 14-species common garden experiment. Diversity and Distributions 24: 403-414.

Lind-Riehl, J. and O. Gailing. 2015. Fine-scale spatial genetic structure of two red oak species, Quercus rubra and Quercus ellipoidalis. Plant Systematics and Evolution 301: 1601-1612.

Martin, D. K. H. and R. M. Turcotte. 2017. First report of Diplodia corticola causing stem cankers and associated vascular occlusion of northern red oak (Quercus rubra) in West Virginia. Plant Disease 101:380.

Massart. L. 2017. Does Quercus rubra recover faster after drought stress in mixed forests?. M.S. Thesis. Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.

Merceron, N. R., A. De Langhe, H. Dubois, O. Garin, F. Gerarts. 2017. Removal of acorns of the alien oak Quercus rubra on the ground by scatter-hoarding animals in Belgian forests. Biotechnology, Agronomy, Soicety, and Environment 21: 127-130.

Myczko, L., L. Dylewski, A. Chrzanowski, and T. H. Sparks. 2017. Acorns of invasive northern red oak (Quercus ruba) in Europe are larval hosts for moths and beetles. Biological Invasions 19: 2419-2425.

Top, S. M. 2017. Climate influences the content and chemical compositions of foliar tannins in green and senesced tissues of Quercus rubra. Frontiers in Plant Science 8: 423-435.

Choosing Possible Topics (Review of Articles)

 * Quercus rubra
 * After studying the northern red oak in my last article evaluation, I realized that there was not much conversation or information regarding how red oaks are affected by pathogens and interspecific competition for resources among other various tree species that may be in close proximity to Quercus rubra. The article also very briefly addresses environmental stressors for the northern red oak and how it has adapted to those stressors.
 * A potential area of improvement could be to have a new section discussing adaptive traits that the species acquired that have allowed to it resist pathogens and/or competitors within its population. This could even be considered a history section, that increases our understanding of how various environmental changes have affected the northern red oak.
 * There is a lot of information regarding its morphological characteristics; however, the article does not discuss dispersal or how the prevalence northern red oaks has been affected by it. Given the fact that northern red oaks are very popular along the Northeast, there should be an explanation about how it has been able to disperse here in the U.S. and in the small areas of Europe that were mentioned early in the article.
 * A potential addition to the page could discuss the effects that dispersal has had on the northern red oak and what mechanisms have been best suited for dispersal of it across the Northeast. There are likely animals or simply wind dispersal that has either aided or harmed the proliferation of northern red oaks. Another component could also be to discuss the features that have made the northern red oak a species a more favorable species to disperse over other tree species.
 * Much of the discussion on the talk page of the article focuses on its morphology, which correlates to the amount of editing and information that has been done on northern red oak morphology. The fact that so little discussion has taken place about the two topics above indicate potential ways to further advance this article.
 * Raceme
 * The article posed a very brief description of this floral arrangement and also mentioned other types of inflorescence that are similarly structured to the raceme arrangement. While I think it is important to make the distinction in similar arrangements, the page article lacks sufficient detail about the species that are racemic and what, if any, environmental advantages and disadvantages are posed by having this arrangement.
 * I think it would be better organized to divide the Wikipedia page into sections, since the article seems very disorganized and just lacks sufficient information that could improve a reader's overall understanding of a raceme. I think a section including common species with this arrangement would be beneficial to include on its Wikipedia page.
 * The article makes it difficult to decipher if a spike, spikelet, or spadix falls into the category of a type of raceme or if it is considered a completely different type of inflorescence that is just similar to a raceme, but that distinction should be made to a allow for a more clear understanding and organization. This could also be an area of improvement.
 * There is no description about environmental locations where this arrangement may be most popular, which, when included, may indicate some adaptations that species who posses this structure may have incurred.
 * One addition to this page would be to include background on popular areas to find the racemic structure. This section could also include active pollinators that may exhibit a preference for flowers with this arrangement also.
 * The talk section is empty, which may indicate the lack of proper organization exhibited in this article. I am not sure if there just is not sufficient enough articles/resources to improve the page or if there just has not been enough interest in the topic for changes to have been made/discussed. It appears most of the references are not articles from scholarly journals but are mostly encyclopedias and textbooks.
 * Juniper berry
 * This article is very well-organized in terms of layout and break down of the subheadings. I did not know too much about juniper berries prior to browsing the article and it was interesting to find out that it is actually characterized a cone and not an actual berry. While the article does explain that the berry is fleshy and that some are toxic when consumed, it does not give any indication as to whether this has evolved to serve as a predator defense or if is has made any impacts in its dispersal (e.g. an animal eats the toxic fruit and the surrounding animals associate the fruit with toxicity and do not consume it, so dispersal is reduced).
 * One improvement that could be made to the article is having another subheading that discusses the purposes of the berry as a defense mechanism and/or a vehicle for dispersal. There is also a picture of green and violet colored berries and I am curious to see if there is a significant distinction between the two berry colors, which may add to this proposed subheading.
 * The article mentions that some of the berries of Junipers found in North America are distinctively sweeter instead of spicy. I do not know if this is the result of artificial selection by individuals who make perfume or if there has been some naturally selected advantage to Juniper berries being sweeter in this region of the world.
 * One addition that could be made to this article could be the inclusion of specific species of Junipers that may be known for the sweetness of their berries and what areas they might be located and if there has been a dispersal advantage in these areas of North America, since many animals rely on berries as a source of consumption.
 * Most of the references in this article reference the uses and medicinal advantages of the Juniper berry and is very well-developed. The sources are all valid and add to the overall understanding of the article also.
 * The talk section of this article focuses heavily on what the proper name of the Juniper berry should be. Many feel that it is inappropriate to call it a "berry," when in fact it is a cone, while others feel that calling it a berry just adds for a simple understanding of how it has fleshy parts that are used for consumption. Many feel that "Juniper spice" could also be a functional term instead of Juniper berry since it is known to produce a spice and is a more accurate reflection of its purposes.

Article Evaluation: Quercus rubra

 * Quercus rubra
 * the article effectively does the following:
 * articulate the identifying characteristics of the species, including its: bark, leaves, wood, an winter buds
 * its usage and relevancy in the natural world and the overall breakdown of its subheadings made sense and allowed for effective organizations
 * had examples of famous types of red oaks was also a nice touch to allow the readers to potentially even visit and observe these areas such as in Connecticut, Maryland and Kentucky
 * overall writing is also easy to read and process, although there were a few grammatical errors.
 * instances of bias and unclear direction:
 * in the "description" subheading:
 * the authors mention 'open-grown' trees and how they are unable to reach great height, but it fails to give direction as to whether the red oak is an example of an open grown tree or not. If it is not considered open-grown, then they could gave possibly provided some additional information as to why red oak grow to be so tall.
 * the article mentions that red oaks are often considered part of the oak-heath forest, but are less significant than other oaks. I personally could not tell if this was an instance of bias based on the authors' determination of what is important or if there is actual background that allows red oaks to be classified as such.
 * Citations:
 * The article had 11 references, one of which is from the year 1900. While that does not deem it irrelevant, the article itself is a tree identification guide, I do believe there may be more current up-to-date tree guides that could provide the most culturally significant identification. Since the year 1900, one can assume several generations of red oaks have been present that have also undergone many changes induced by the environment (disease, deforestation, etc.) that could ultimately change their morphological characteristics.
 * The links available do provide accurate information that is consistent with the information resented in the Wikipedia page. The NatureServe reference had pull-down categorical elements that provided information consistent with the conservation status, the scientific classification, and the references that the site itself used.
 * In the Arbor Day Foundation site, which was one of the link provided, the site makes a sales pitch as to why the red oak is one of the best trees around and should be considered as a valuable tree for one's home. The site provided on the spot and quick facts about red oaks but also had a link to buying and purchasing one, which may seem a little biased when in use with the Wikipedia page.
 * Talk Page and further discussions:
 * Back in 2006-2009, a few discussed how the layout of the page could have a better flow and have information that s easier to read and analyze. A few readers felt that the page was too redundant and lacked relevant pictures,.
 * A few edits were also made to the links provided at the end of the article, which were viewed as more current and productive to the understanding of the red oaks around
 * A few edits also mentioned that the age and size of red oaks, as well as acorn germination was not accurately represented and provided links that supported their claims.