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Draft
My edits are in bold

Introduction

'''Hermeneutics is the basis of all scriptural interpretations, and in the context of Islam, often includes vital tools, such as tafsir, and exegesis to aid in analyses of the Qur’an. The tools used for hermeneutical dissection range from the hadith reports, in traditional interpretation, to things like taqwa, and a more contemporary, liberating approach.''' It is a discipline that sets itself upon the task of specifying and justifying a methodology of interpretation, originally of texts, but by extension of many other inoerpretants. It has also been called the science or art of interpretation"(778). Hermeneutics may be conceived as either a descriptive or a normative discipline. In a descriptive vein, it aims at a rational reconstruction of an already existing practice of interpretation that presumably is less than perfect. In a normative vein, the goal is to direct, control, and, hopefully, to optimize this imperfect practice. Both projects, the descriptive and the normative, do seem not only legitimate, but also worthwhile. The two leading concepts are interpretation and understanding. Interpretation is a rational activity directed toward the cognitive aim of correct or adequate understanding. (The product of this activity is also called ‘an interpretation.) ‘To interpret’ and ‘to understand’ are transitive verbs; understanding, like interpretation, has an object. One understands something (x), or one fails to understand it. Sometimes we understand something without effort, simply because we have acquired the requisite ability, and nothing more is needed (778)

Peter Heath posed in 1989 that "the modern study of Islamic hermeneutics is in its infancy"; in response, Jean Jacques Waardenburg proposed five questions and issues that a study of a possible hermeneutics of Islam would have to deal with:


 * 1) Is there a consistent methodology underlying tafsir that one could call hermeneutical, do rules exist "that have been explicitly formulated and consciously applied by Muslim scholars"?
 * 2) Given that much of the tradition of interpretation of the Qur'an is concerned with the interpretation of specific verses, what is the relationship between those interpretations and the interpretation of the Qur'an as a whole?
 * 3) What type of philological knowledge, and what type of knowledge of the historical reception of the text is necessary to come to an assessment of Islamic hermeneutics?
 * 4) Can we separate our emotional reaction to certain verses from the study of interpreting the text?
 * 5) What is the role of the specialists in the field (the mutakallimiin, the ulama, and the fuqahā') and what is their relationship to the broader circle of students of the Qur'an and the even larger community of believers?

Tafsir as described by Andrew Rippin "is the humanization of the divine word and the divinization of the human spirit." (177)

Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im suggests "Hermeneutics may be defined as the art or science of interpretation, especially for scriptual texts. In view of the inevitaility of using human reason and action in understanding and implementing any text, as noted earlier, a hermeneutical process is necessary for understanding the purpose and normative content of a text like the Qur'an." In Amina Wadud's book, Qur'an and Woman: Rereading the Sacred Text from a Woman's Perspective, she defines the hermeneutical model as being, "concerned with three aspects of the text, in order to support it's conclusions: 1. The context in which the text was written (in the case of the Qur'an, in which it was revealed); 2. The grammatical composition of the text (how it says what it says); and 3. The whole text, it's Weltanshauung, or world-view. Often, differences of opinion can be traced to variations in emphasis between these three aspects" (Wadud 3).

People

 * Al-Tabari
 * Ibn Kathir

Approaches to Interpretation Concerning Women and Minority Groups [edit][edit]
The growing influence of women in the Muslim world and their increasing access to higher levels of education, combined with the Western interest in the position of women in the Muslim world has a profound influence on Islamic hermeneutics, which must deal with transnationalism and its effect on gender roles. '''Zayn R. Kassam touches on this by mentioning that, "Muslim women's praxis, particularly the hopes, possibilities, and challenges that accompany this scholarly textual reinterpretation, remains under-researched" (94). Due to this type of interpretation being under-researched, many women in Islamic communities are still oppressed despite the changing of modern society.''' 'New' schools of Islamic thinking (emblematized by such philosophers as Mohammed Arkoun) have challenged "monodimensional hermeneutics." Modern Qur’anic hermeneutics has been influenced by the changing position and view of women in the Muslim world and increasing numbers of study and interpretations of the text itself. Mohammed Arkoun further expands on this thought explaining, "There are concrete examples how authority and power are conquered, monopolized and translated, not in the theoretical classical frameworks, but in a more simplified vocabulary, accessible to the illiterate peasants, mountain-dwellers and nomads."(253) '''The Qur’an is such an authoritative text in Islamic communities, and even though there are many different interpretations of the text, stereotypical societal structures still exist in the changing modern world, perhaps because they have not been challenged in prior interpretations. Zayn R. Kassam adds to this by stating that, “The discursive hermeneutics of Qur’anic tafsir is a strategy born of necessity and the unwavering belief in the unfulfilled promise of gender egalitarianism in Islam” (117). These types of interpretation are in many ways still in their infancy, but growing concern around these topics calls for a new hermeneutical approach for interpreting the Qur’an. Interpretation of the Qur’an in terms of gender rights is becoming more prevalent, especially due to the many changes taking place in modern times concerning gender and other minority or oppressed groups. In terms of these approaches to interpretation, and the hermeneutical model being developed for it, Amina Wadud, is one who can be considered a significant developer. For example, in her analysis, in the context of the creation story in the Qur'an, states that, "The Qur'an encourages all believers, male and female, to follow their beliefs with actions, and for this it promises them a great reward. Thus, the Qur'an does not make a distinction between men and women in this creation, the purpose of the Book, or in the reward it promises" (15). This is an example of modern hermeneutics and the way it can be applied to this issue. Wadud considers that Arabic, the language of the Qur’an, is a gendered language, so that the meaning of certain phrases can be altered just be this factor alone. While she does use traditional tafsir in her analysis, she changes and skips some of the traditional steps, like keeping words in context while also referring to the larger textual development of the term and focusing on what is left unsaid in the Qur’an in relation to what is said. Wadud challenges the traditional hermeneutical approach and tafsir by adding to and changing the usual model.''' Dr. Wadud has giving us an interpretation of the Quran through a female Muslim lens. . She offers a female view of women in the Quran and their importance of their teaching. She suggests that the Quran does not supply gender specific roles for either male or female. Amina states that the patriarchal construct of women’s role in the community was a self-serving one., not ordained by Quranic text. She states that the greater Quranic message is on to establish harmony within the community (81).

'''Another minority group to consider in more modern interpretations of the Qur'an is queer theory or interpretations. As mentioned by Kecia Ali, "In queer theory, gender and sexual dimorphisms are social constructions that invariably efface difference, administer power to the powerful, and subject the weak/disfavored to the rule of the strong/favored" (90). In other words, Ali explains that, "Queer theoretical interventions, then, have relevance for social life: challenging the presumed coherence and sacred nature of existing oppressive norms allows other forms of being and relating to emerge and flourish" (91). Queer readings and interpretations of the Qur'an are few and far between, while there are plenty of scholarships on gender-focused interpretations of the Qur'an.'''

'A pioneering interpretive text in this field is Scott Kugle’s Homosexuality in Islam'', which focuses on interpreting the Qur’an in the context of homosexuality. His hermeneutical approach mainly entails the use of linguistics, emphasis on human nature, the Qur’an as a liberation document, non- patriarchal interpretation, and bases his sensitive interpretation on seven principles required for interpretations of this sort, “(1) the inherent dignity of all human beings as bearing the breath of God; (2) the sacredness of life; (3) the ethic of pluralism; (4) order with justice; (5) God’s speech is meaningful, such that interpretation is the right and obligation of all Muslims to discover what God intends behind, within, and through scripture’s words; (6) faith complements reason; (7) love is the goal” (41). He uses these seven principles combined with specific tools, such as: (1) Linguistic accuracy; (2) maintaining the primacy of the Qur’an; (3) affirming the Qur’an’s integrity; (4) clarifying the Qur’an’s context; (5)  focusing in principles; (6) restraint in rule making; (7) and embracing moral optimism. Kugle analyzes the story of Lot, which has become a primary source of contention and interpretation in the way that the attitude towards homosexuality has been constructed. During his analysis, Kugle focuses on the intention behind the acts depicted in the story and explains how they could be taken in a different way. He concludes that, “one can argue that the story of Lot is not about homosexuality at all. Rather, Lot criticizes using sex as a weapon. Lot condemns sex acts that are coercive, like rape” (56). He places a lot of emphasis on the intention of sexual acts and how they are to be interpreted/ represented. Kugle’s analysis concerning the Qur’an’s stance towards the LGBTQ+ community is unconventional in the sense of it being done to this extent before, but arguably needed, nonetheless.'''

References:


 * 1) Kassam, Zayn R. Women and Islam. Praeger, Santa Barbara California, 2010.
 * 2) Wadud, Amina. Qur'an and Woman: Rereading the Sacred Text from a Woman's Perspective. Oxford University Press, 1999.
 * 3) Ali, Kecia. Destabilizing Gender, Reproducing Maternity: Mary in the Qur'an, JIQSA 2 (2017): 89-109.
 * 4) Kugle, Scott Siraj al-Haqq. “Homosexuality in Islam: Critical Reflection on Gay, Lesbian, and Transgender Muslims,” Oneworld Publications, Oxford, 2010.