User:NatureConservancy/sandbox


 * Indented line

=Biodiversity of the People's Republic of China= Terrestrial biodiversity in China is among the highest in the world, and inventories of the distribution and status of the country’s biodiversity are fairly comprehensive. Because the existing literature thoroughly documents China’s biodiversity, this book provides only a brief overview of species diversity, and then describes the locations, types, and conservation issues associated with each major ecosystem. China is home to 15% of the world’s vertebrate species and 12% of all plant species, making it third in the world for plant diversity with 30,000 species (Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1992) (Li et al., 2003). Major land cover types include, in descending order of percentage cover of China’s land mass: grasslands (33%); forests (21%); desert and salt flats (20%); barren lands (7%); shrublands (4%); wetlands, rivers, and streams (2%); and glaciers ‹1%).

Species Biodiversity
Terrestrial biodiversity in China is among the highest in the world, and research and inventories of the distribution and status of the country's biodiversity are fairly comprehensive. China is home to 15% of the world's vertebrate species including wildlife such as the Yunnan golden monkey, black-necked crane, and the iconic giant panda. China also accounts for 12% of all plant species in the world, ranked third in the world for plant diversity with 30,000 species (Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1992) (Li et al., 2003). Of the vertebrates, 667 (11%) of genera are endemic, while 275 (7%) plant genera are endemic (Table 1-1). It is estimated that approximately 233 vertebrate species face extinction while 15%-20% of the wild higher plants in China are endangered (Ministry of Environmental Protection, 2011). The species richness of terrestrial mammals varies throughout the country (Figure 1-1).

China’s species diversity can be attributed to wide variations in climate, geomorphology, and ecosystems. Covering approximately 9.6 million km2, China is bordered by the Pacific Ocean on the southeast and extends northwest to the center of the Eurasian continent. The country spans 5,500 km and 50 degrees of latitude from north to south, covering multiple temperature zones from cold temperate to tropical. Precipitation mainly comes from monsoons that originate in the Pacific and Indian oceans, respectively. As a result, the eastern and south central areas are moist and wet, while the northwest is arid and bordered by a transitional semi-arid zone of steppe vegetation. The terrestrial ecosystems reflect the latitudinal distribution of these zones and climate.

Table 1-1: Plant and vertebrate species in China (Chinese Academy of Sciences, 1992) (Li, Song, & Ouyang, 2003)

Ecosystem Biodiversity
Terrestrial land cover includes, in descending order of percentage cover: grasslands; forests; deserts and salt flats; barren lands; shrublands; wetlands, rivers, and streams; and glaciers. Most of these land covers include sub-categories, especially grassland, forest, desert, and wetland. This chapter does not describe one type of land cover - shrublands - due to limited information availability. In short, shrublands are widely distributed throughout China, from the tropics to temperature zones, and from sea level to 5,000 meters elevation. Given their wide range and distribution, there is great biodiversity within shrublands. They typically consist of vegetation less than 5 meters in height, with vegetation coverage exceeding 30-40% (Chinese Academy of Sciences, 2007).

Table 1-2: Land cover types and size.

Table 1-3: Summary of sub-categories and major conservation issues for each land cover type.

A. Grasslands
As the dominant land cover in China, grasslands account for approximately 33% of the land area. Approximately 78% (318 million hectares) of the grasslands in China occur in the northern temperate zone (Kang et al., 2007). China’s northern grassland ecosystems play a critical role both ecologically and socioeconomically, supporting diverse plant and animal species and traditional human uses such as livestock grazing to produce meat, milk, wool, and other animal products. These ecosystems are distributed across approximately 4,500 km, stretching from the northeastern plains adjacent to Mongolia to south of the Tibetan Plateau.

The grassland ecosystems in China can be classified as meadow steppe, typical steppe, desert steppe, and alpine steppe, as described below (Kang et al., 2007):

Meadow steppe occurs on the most moist and fertile sites in areas with annual precipitation around 450 mm and soils with high organic content (Kang et al., 2007). Typical species include Stipa baicalensis, Bothriochloa ischaemum, Cleistogenes mucronata, Leymus chinensis, L. angustum, and Filifolium sibiricum.

Typical steppe occurs in areas with semi-arid climates and annual precipitation of around 350 mm. Plant species are usually drought tolerant and typical species include Stipa sp., Festuca sp., Leymus, sp., and Artemisia sp.

Desert steppe occurs in the most arid regions with annual precipitation of between 150 and 250 mm. Typical species include Allium polyrhizum and several Stipa species.

Alpine steppe is typically found in southwest China (Qinghai and Tibet) between 2,300 and 5,300 m in elevation and is inhabited by cold- and drought-tolerant grasses and small shrubs. Typical species are purple feathergrass (Stipa purpurea), S. subsessiliflora, Festuca olgae, Carex moorcroftii, and Artemisia salsoloides wellbyi.

Nearly 90% of the grasslands in China are now degraded to varying degrees, with one-third of grasslands classified as severly degraded (SDPC, 1996) (SEPA, 1998) (Meyer, 2006). The situation is particularly grave in Inner Mongolia, where land degradation is generally believed to be a major reason for the increasing frequency of severe sandstorms and dust storms in northern China in recent decades. The environmental and economic future of the Inner Mongolia grasslands is at risk and in need of sound ecosystem management strategies for grassland sustainability. Primary causes of grassland degradation include livestock grazing and demand for energy resources, global climate change, and overhunting.

B. Forests
As the second largest land cover type in China, forest ecosystems encompass approximately 198 million hectares, or nearly 21% of the terrestrial land base (Table 1–2). For comparison, the forest cover of the U.S. was approximately 302 million hectares as of 1997 (Smith & Darr, 2004).China’s forests are far less extensive today than they once were, due to conversion and unsustainable timber harvest. However, massive afforestation efforts are reversing that trend. In fact, the Central Government has a goal of increasing forest coverage to 20% by 2010, 23% by 2020, and 26% by 2050 (State Forestry Administration, 2007). Nonetheless, China’s forest resources are still relatively scarce on a per-capita basis; as of 2005 its per-capita forest cover was one-fifth of the world average, and its per-capita standing stock of timber was approximately one-seventh of the global average (Demurger et al., 2005).

Little of China’s original forest cover remains. According to one country-wide study of forest cover, approximately 53.1 million hectares of forest were lost or converted to other uses from1700-2005. Forest loss was greatest in the northeast (Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang) and southwest (Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan, Tibet) from 1700-2005, with total forest losses of 22.8 million hectares and 8.7 million hectares respectively. As examples of forest loss in specific areas, 70% of the natural forest cover was cleared from the three largest coniferous forest regions in China including Daxing’anling and the Changbai Mountains in northeastern China, and the Hengduan Mountains in the southwest (Li et al., 2003). In northern China, less than 10% of the original forest cover remains, and the western provinces of Ningxia, Xinjiang, Gansu and Qinghai have less than 4% forest cover (Zheng et al., 2001).

Currently, China’s forests are concentrated in the northeastern, southwestern, and southeastern provinces (He et al., 2008) (Figure 1–9). As a result of the deforestation, secondary forests now form the majority of broadleaf forest cover and old-growth deciduous broadleaf forests are scarce. The largest forested area of 10 million hectares covers parts of Inner Mongolia and Heilongjiang provinces (Chen & Chen, 1991). There is nearly an equal distribution between coniferous forests (approximately 50%; Figure 1–8) and broadleaved forests (approximately 47%) across the country (Chen & Chen, 1991) (Wang, 2006).

China’s forests can be broadly divided into seven sub-types (Figure 1–9):

1. Cold temperate coniferous forest dominated by larch (Larix spp.), spruce (Picea spp.), fir (Abies spp.), and pine (Pinus spp.). These forests are largely distributed in habitats dominated by cool-cold and humid conditions. Some 200 vertebrate species can be found in these forests, of which more than 40 are mammals and nearly 120 are birds.

2. Temperate coniferous and broadleaf mixed forests are dominated by Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis). This is a major forest type in the eastern part of northeastern China. Once an important timber base, this forest type today is severely limited. Well-conserved P. koraiensis-broadleaved deciduous forests occur mainly in nature reserves in the Xiao Xingan and Changbai mountains.

3. Deciduous broadleaf forests are widely distributed on hills and from mid-elevation to subalpine zones on mountains in the warm temperate and tropical zones. The diverse oak forests (Quercus spp.) and mixed oaks and deciduous broadleaved forests are typical of the warm temperate zone. There are approximately 11 types of oak forests extending from northern to southern China, each dominated by a different species of oak. Due to its extremely limited distribution, one of the more unique deciduous forests in China may be the beech (Fagus spp.) forests which occur only in mountains in the subtropical zone in the east central to south central part of the country (Chen & Chen, 1991). There are 9 types of birch forests in China, all distributed in mountainous regions. Three types of alder (Alnus spp.) forests occupy humid sites. Birch forests and poplar (Populus spp.) forests are typically secondary forests succeeding montane broadleaved forests and coniferous forests, under natural conditions. In subtropical regions, deciduous broadleaved forests are secondary forests that develop mainly after the original evergreen forests are damaged.

4. Warm temperate coniferous forest can be classified into four broad forest types by their dominant species as: Chinese red pine (Pinus tabulaeformis), Japanese red pine (Pinus densiflora), lacebark pine (Pinus bungeana), and Chinese arborvitae (Platycladus orientalis). Only the first is widely distributed. Most of the Pinus tabulaefonnis forests are concentrated in northern China. Pinus densiflora forests appear on the Shandong and Liaodong peninsulas. Platycladus orientalis forests are widely distributed, but restricted to small areas. The distribution of Pinus bungeana is limited to northern China the southern part of Shanxi, western Hubei, and northern Sichuan.

5. Sub-tropical and tropical evergreen broadleaf forests are widely distributed in the humid subtropical zone in China. The subtropical region occupies a quarter of the total area of the country. There is a very rich diversity of plant species distributed throughout the evergreen broadleaf forest area, including more than two-thirds of the genera (2,674) and one-half of the species (14,600) occurring in China (Li et al., 2003). Forests in this region are typically mixed forests dominated by one or more evergreen species such as chinquapin (Castanopsis spp.), Cyclobalanopsis spp., Machilus spp., or Schima spp. There is a slight difference between the easternmost and westernmost evergreen forests within China's subtropical zone (Chen & Chen, 1991). In the western part, the most widely distributed forests are Castanopsis delavayi forests. In the eastern part, there are more forest types, each with one of the following as the dominant species: Castanopsis eyrei, ring-cupped oak (Cydobalanopsis glauca), Castanopsis carlesii, Castanopsis fargesii, Tabu-No-Ki tree (Machilus thunbergii),and Schima superba.

6. Sub-tropical and tropical coniferous forests are abundant in China. Chinese red pine (Pinus tabulaeformis) forests from the warm temperate zone give way in the tropical and sub-tropical zones to Chinese red pine (P. massoniana) forests in the south and east, and to Yunnan pine (P. yunnanensis) and Chinese white pine (P. armandi) in the west (Li et al., 2003). A special note is required for another representative forest consisting of what are often referred to as “living fossils.” This forest consists of species dating back to the Tertiary period such as Cathaya argyrophylla, golden larch (Pseudolarix kaempferi), dawn redwood (Metasequoia glyptostroboides), water pine (Giyptostrobus pensilis), taiwania (Taiwania cryptomeriodes), and T. flousiana. These species occur independently of each other, are dispersed in small isolated areas, and appear to be gradually declining (Chen & Chen, 1991) (Li et al., 2003).

7. Tropical rainforests in China are seasonally wet or dry rainforests occurring on the margins of the typical rainforest ecosystem range. Chinese tropical rainforests are an extension of the Indian and Malaysian rainforests, and are distributed in areas with sufficient year-round rainfall and heat. Rainforests dominated by Cotton tree (Bombax malabaricum), Chinese albizia (Albizia chinensis), and Vatica astrotricha are the most common and widely-distributed rainforest types in China. Sitting at the extreme northern edge of the south Asian tropical forest range, China has only a small area of tropical forest distributed in southern Guangdong, Hainan, southern Guangxi (Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region), southern Yunnan, and southeastern Tibet. Despite their relatively limited distribution (0.5% of China’s land area) the tropical rainforest in China contains some of the country’s highest biodiversity, with 25% of the country’s species (Li et al., 2003). Hainan and southern Yunnan have more extensive rainforests than any other part of China, but with increasing human pressure for development, these forests are disappearing quickly. Rainforest coverage is also changing rapidly due to expanding human populations. For example, the rainforest on Hainan covered 25.7% of the total island area in the early 1950s, but within 30 years had decreased to 10.6%, of which just 6% is natural (Chen & Chen, 1991).

Conservation Issues and Threats

Historic Deforestation Over the last 60 years, since the creation of the People's Republic of China in 1949, there have been several periods of intense deforestation. During the Great Leap Forward (1958-1961), citizens felled and burned thousands of hectares of trees for steel production, with only limited reforestation. Then, starting in the late 1960s, the government encouraged conversion of forests to agricultural land in order to increase grain self-sufficieny. Finally, in the 1980s, peasants were granted use rights to forests and many immediately harvested the trees for short-term profit, fearing that the use rights would be rescinded before they could reap the benefits (Demurger et al., 2005).

As deforestation escalated, so did ecological consequences including soil erosion, desertification, natural disasters, and loss of biodiversity. One of the most devasting results of deforestation was the flooding of the Yangtze River in 1998. The flood, China's worst in 44 years, drowned more than 4,000 people and rendered 14 million homeless (PBS.org). Deforestation was largely to blame; because 85% of the Yangtze River Basin had been logged, monsoon rainfalls coursed relatively freely toward the river.

Conversion to plantations There has been a tendency toward replacing evergreen broadleaf forests with plantations of coniferous species such as Chinese red pine (Pinus massoniana) and Chinese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata), leading to decreasing species diversity in these forests (Chen & Chen, 1991).

C. Deserts and Salt Flats
China boasts some of the world’s largest and most extreme deserts such as the Taklamakan Desert just north of the Tibetan Plateau. They are expanding, due to desertification of grasslands and other ecosystems. The tallest sand dunes and highest elevation alluvial fan in the world are located in north-central China in the Badain Jaran desert. China’s deserts are roughly distributed northwest of the Lang, Helan, and Burhan Budai mountain ranges and cover an area of approximately 191 million hectares, or approximately 20% of China’s terrestrial area(Figure 1–11) (Li et al., 2003)(Alles, 2007).

The desert regions of China form the largest arid area in the temperate climate zone in the world (Warren-Rhodes et al., 2007). The distribution of China's deserts is closely related to the pattern of rainfall, which is in turn strongly influenced by the East-Asian and Indian summer monsoon and the moisture sources from the South, Southwest and Southeast. Like most deserts, China’s are characterized by strong continentality (large thermal variation), low precipitation, extreme climatic variations, intense sunshine, and strong winds and sandstorms in winter and spring (Warren-Rhodes et al., 2007). In winter, the desert regions are dominated by the Siberian high-pressure system, causing extremely dry and cold climates.

According to their substrata, deserts may be divided into sandy, gravel (Gobi), loam (loess deposits), clay (saline desert) and rocky (inselbergs). The first two types cover the largest areas in China. In general, and in the classification in Figure 1–11, if more than 50% of an area is gravel or cobble plains it is considered Gobi desert.

Compared with other terrestrial ecosystems, the species composition of deserts is relatively poor. The total number of seed plants encountered in the vast desert areas of northwestern China is just a little more than 600. The Junggar Basin plain is considered to have the richest flora, yet, only about 500 species have been recorded. The flora of the Tarim Basin comprises less than 200 species (Ministry of Environmental Protection, 2004).

Despite the limited species composition, relatively unique ungulates developed in the deserts of China—including ancestors of its present livestock. These include, for example, Przewalskii’s wild horse (Equus przewalskii), kulan (E. hemionus), bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus), yarkland deer(Cervus elaphus yarkandensis), saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica), Przewalskii’s gazelle (Procapra przewalskii), and gazelle (Gazella subguttarosa) (Figure 1–10). Other species that come down from the surrounding arid mountains to the borders of such deserts include alpine ibex (Capra ibex), mountain sheep (argali; Ovis ammon), and Himalayan blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur). Rodents, especially representatives of the Dipodidae (12 species) and Gerbillinae (Cricetidae) (7 species), are particularly conspicuous in desert ecosystems. Compared with adjacent humid regions, there is less bird and larger mammal diversity, though birds of prey are more numerous (12 species).

Reptiles are widely distributed in the desert ecosystems of northwest China, where both species and individuals are numerous. The most commonly seen are species of toadhead agamas (i.e., lizards; Phrynocephalus) and Eremias, a genus of wall lizards. In the western part of the deserts of Xinjiang lives a unique terrestrial tortoise, the Russian tortoise (Testudo horsfieldi).

Conservation Issues and Threats

Gathering fuel and digging medinical herbs It is estimated that annually in desert areas of the Junggar Basin, on average, each inhabitant family utilizes at least two tons of saxoul (Haloxylon ammodendron and H. Persicum), a tree common to Gobi deserts. For example, in the Alxa desert of Inner Mongolia, the saxoul forests were reduced by 60% from 1958-1978 (Ministry of Environmental Protection, 2004). In addition, valuable medicinal plants, such as licorice (Glycyrrhiza spp.), ephedra (Ephedra przewalskii), cyonmorium (Cynomorium songaricum), and others have all decreased due to severe uprooting and collection. These species are well-adapted to the harsh desert environment and play an important role in soil stabilization and hydrologic cycles. They also provide micro-habitats (e.g. cover and food) for many vertebrates and invertebrates. Their loss is leading to greater desertification and reduction of wildlife habitat.

Overhunting and habitat destruction Przewalskii's horse (Equus przewalskii), saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica), Xinjiang tiger (Panthera tigris lecoqi), desert bear (Ursus arctos pruinosus), bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus), onager (Equus hemionus), and Przewalskii's gazelle (Procapra przewalskii) are all desert dwellers, and were numerous in the deserts of Northwest China a few centuries ago. Przewalskii's horse disappeared from the wild in the 1960s mainly because of overhunting. The saiga antelope, orginially widely distributed in Middle Asia, Mongolia, and the Junggar Basin of China, has not been seen in China since the early 1950s.

Mining Large scale prospecting and exploitation of petroleum and mineral ores, as well as the construction of roads and cities, threatens wild animals and plants through habitat destruction and disturbance, and by blocking the migration routes of wild animals.

Misuse of water resources and drought Increasing the use of surface and groundwater resources in these arid regions for agriculture, mining, and other uses has lowered water tables in many areas of north and northwest China. This reduction in water availability has led to loss and degradation of desert plant ecosystems. Decreasing soil moisture can stop germination in many agricultural and natural plant species and lead to insect infestation, plant disease, and loss of plant cover.

Continued overuse and mismanagement of water resources in regions of northwest China, such as Gansu's Hexi corridor, have led to serious environmental problems such as reduced water flows in most rivers, drying up of terminal lakes, reduced water quality in the lower reaches of many rivers, increased soil salinity, and ultimately loss of plant cover. In 2004, severe drought and reduced water flow may have led to or compounded droughts in China's southern provinces, which were the worst droughts in 50 years. In the hardest-hit region of Guangxi Province, 1,100 reservoirs went dry and hydropower generation reduced dramatically (State Forestry Administration, 2002).

D. Wetlands, Rivers, and Streams
The Convention on Wetlands recognizes 31 natural and 9 artificial wetland types, all of which are found in China (State Forestry Administration, 2002). Total wetland area is approximately 60 million hectares, including natural and artificial wetlands. Natural wetlands account for less than half of the total wetland area, covering 21-26 million hectares or between 2.2-2.7% of China’s land area. Nearly half of China’s natural wetlands disappeared from 1990–2008. Natural wetlands include peatland (approximately 11 million hectares), coastal wetlands (over 2 million hectares), and riverine and lacustrine wetlands (over 12 million hectares). By contrast, artificial wetland types account for approximately 36 million hectares and include paddy fields (34 million hectares) and saltpans and aquaculture areas (2 million hectares) (Mackinnon et al., 1996) (State Forestry Administration, 2002) (World Wildlife Fund, 2005) (The Nature Conservancy, 2007). (Cyranoski, 2009).

A significant diversity of plant and animal species inhabit and rely on healthy wetlands (Figure 1–12). Approximately 101 plant families, including 94 families of vascular plants, occur in China’s wetland areas. Over 100 species are endangered. Of China’s extensive bird species, its 31 wetland species comprise 54% of Asia’s total of 57 endangered wetland bird species. The wetlands are particularly important to migrating waterfowl such as cranes; in fact, 9 of the world’s 15 crane species have been recorded in China (State Forestry Administration, 2002).

Wetlands and rivers are widely distributed throughout the country and are generally described as follows (Mackinnon et al., 1996) (State Forestry Administration, 2002) (Figure 1–14):

Lakes of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau and Xinjiang Basin are the sources of great rivers such as the Huang He, Chang Jiang, Mekong, and Nujiang (Salween) in the east; and the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra in the south. These lakes, pools, and marshes are important for waterfowl such as the bar-headed Goose (Anser indicus) and black-necked crane (Grus nigricollisi). Approximately half of China’s lakes are saline and most are in northwest China and western Inner Mongolia. They support one of the largest breeding populations of the black stork (Ciconia nigra) in China (in the Tarim River Basin which lies in Xinjiang) and the relict gull (Larus relictus) in the Taolimiao Alashan Nur region of Inner Mongolia.

Freshwater marshes are primarily found in the northeastern provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin, Liaoning, and Inner Mongolia. They are of great importance as breeding and stopover areas for large numbers of waterfowl and, in particular, four species of crane: red-crowned crane (Grus japonensis), Siberian crane (G. Leucogeranus), white-naped crane (G. vipio) and common crane (G. grus). Peatlands are widely distributed throughout northeast China, the Qinahai-Tibetan Plateau in western China, and the Tian Shan and Altai Shan uplands in northwestern China.

Coastal wetlands include seven major types: deltas and bays, tidal mudflats, grassy and reed-bed salt marshes, mangrove swamps, sandy beaches, rocky sea coasts, and offshore islets. Some of the most important flyways in the world, such as the East Asian-Australasian Flyway, cross over China and wetland areas such as the Yellow Sea ecoregion between northeast China and the

Korean Peninsula. The entire global population of Saunders’ Gull (Larus saundersi) breeds in the coastal wetlands of China. Many migratory waterfowl fly directly from Australia to China, using the coastal wetland areas as wintering and staging areas. The mangroves, fish ponds, and rice paddies along the coast also support large numbers of herons and egrets, as well as important species such as the black-faced spoonbill (Platalea minor) and the Saunders’ Gull, which winter in Deep Bay, Guangdong/Hong Kong.

Rivers exceed 50,000 in total number and include some of the longest and most important freshwater resources in the world. More than 1,500 rivers each drain areas equal to or greater than 1,000 km2. Many of China’s and southeast Asia’s largest and most valuable rivers begin high on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau, with significant elevation differences between their sources and mouths (State Forestry Administration 2002). Basins of rivers flowing to the ocean account for approximately 65% of China’s land area, while basins of inland rivers emptying into lakes or other inland rivers account for approximately 35% of China’s land area (State Forestry Administration, 2002).

The Yangtze, Yellow, Heilong, and Pearl River basins are the four largest and most ecologically and economically important to China’s wildlife and people. The 6,300-km long Yangtze River is the longest in China and the third-longest in the world (Figure 1–13). It has eight major tributaries and a catchment area of 1.8 million square kilometers, which is equivalent to one-fifth of the total land of China. The Yellow (Huanghe) River is the second largest river in China with a length of 5,464 km. As one of the birthplaces of ancient Chinese civilization, the Yellow has lush pasturelands and abundant mineral deposits. The Heilong River in northern China covers a total length of 4,350 km, of which, 3,101 km are in China. The Pearl (Zhujiang) River covers 2,214 km in southern China.

One particularly important and unique area from an ecological perspective is the “Three Parallel Rivers” region. This region boasts China’s most spectacular river canyons formed by the Nujiang (Salween) River, Lancang (Mekong) River, and the Yangtze River. In a remote corner of Yunnan Province, these three rivers run parallel to each other, coming within 70 km of each other before separating to water the plains of eastern China and Southeast Asia. The region is part of a 1.7 million hectare World Heritage Site: Three Parallel Rivers of Yunnan World Protected Areas (UNESCO).

Conservation Issues and Threats

Land conversion The largest threat to wetlands in China, as in many countries, is conversion to farmland and urban development. According to research by the Chinese Academy of Sciences, approximately 10 million hectares of wetlands were lost over a 30-year period, from 1978-2008 (Zhang, 2011). Specific coastal wetlands, approximately 50% of China's have been lost to aquaculture and urban development. Reclamation and aquaculture have decreased mangrove forest cover by 72% since 1950, from 50,000 hectares in 1950 to approximately 14,000 hectares today (State Forestry Administration, 2002).

Unsustainable Use Wetlands in the low altitude southeast area of the Tibetan Plateau face local pressures due to drainage, peat mining, reservoir construction, pesticide use, and changes in agricultural practices. Also, waterfowl populations have declined due to overhunting, egg collection, and the destruction of fish stocks through illegal fishing. Over-extraction of water for urban and agricultural uses is also a major threat to many freshwater rivers and lakes. For example, flow records for the Yellow River show that there were 226 days without water flow in 1997 (State Forestry Administration, 2002).

Dams Dams threaten many rivers in China and have fragmented and destroyed river ecosystems, thus preventing the reproduction or disrupting migration

E. Glaciers
Glaciers comprise the smallest ecosystem type, covering an area of approximately 5.5-5.9 million hectares or approximately 0.6% of China’s land area. Yet, they are critically important to biodiversity because their meltwater supplies aquatic ecosystems. China’s glaciers are primarily found in western China, in the mountains of Sichuan, Yunnan, Gansu, and Tibet. Many of Asia’s major rivers, including the Jinsha (upper Yangtze), Lancang (upper Mekong), Nu (upper Salween), Dulong (tributary of the Irrawaddy), and Yarlung Tsangpo (upper Brahmaputra), originate from and rely on the meltwater of glaciers. These rivers are the source of water for hundreds of millions of people. Without them, the ecosystem services they provide, such as fish, drinking water, and irrigation, would be severely impacted.

Land Use
Overall, China is experiencing massive land use changes and impacts to the environment due to an unprecendented period of economic growth. Its growth has catapulted it from one of the world's poorest countries 30 years ago to the world's second largest economy today. Since the period of "economic reform and opening," initiated by Deng Xiaoping in 1978. China has moved from a closed, tightly-controlled, and centrally-planned economic system to on that is more market-oriented and showing signs of increasing liberlization. China's economy is heavily dependent upon industries with a large ecological footprint to sustain its extraordinary growth rate. Manufacturing, infrastructure construction, and heavy industry, for example, account for roughly 50% of China's GDP (Central Intelligence Agency, 2011). China is the world leader in the gross value of industrial output, and land-intensive extractive and agricultural industries are a major pillar of China's economy. The environmental impacts of China's "red-hot" growth are readily apparent, with desertification, loss of arable land, and pollution of air, land, and water accounting for billions of dollars of lost economic productivity per year (The World Bank and State Environmental Protection Agency, 2007).

Based on trends in economic development, population growth, and land use, China's natural landscape will undoubtedly experience significant and increasing pressures well into the future. These trends are driving the need for effective land protection. Some natural landscapes will be converted to non-natural uses entirely. Urbanization will likely have the largest negative impact, while the construction of roads and railways, and the development of energy will cause further fragmentation. Other uses such as livestock grazing and the harvest of timber and other forest products may not entirely convert the natural landscape, but they too will have negative impacts. Fortunately, some positive changes are occurring too, in particular massive afforestation efforts and other management/conservation programs.

A. Government Definition
The Central Government identifies land use according to three major categories: agricultural land, construction land, and unused land. As of 2008, agricultural lands covered 69% of China and included cultivated lands, forests, grasslands, orchards, and "other" lands. "Unused lands" such as deserts, apline tundra, and swamps covered approximately 27% of the country, while construction lands such as residential areas and transportation corridors covered 3%. Table 1.4.

B. Urbanization
China has four times the population of the U.S. and nearly seven times that of Brazil, within rougly the same area. The country has at least 125 cities (including Hong Kong) with metro area populations of more than 1 million people, the largest of which include Chongqing (29 million), Shanghai (23 million), and Beijing (people.com.cn, 2008) (National Bureau of Statistics, 2011). The population is distributed unevenly through the country, with the major cities and most of the population lying in the east, where the natural resources are much more favorable for human habitation. The forests and agriculturally-productive landscapes of eastern China support far more people than do the grasslands, deserts, and high mountain regions of the west.

Experts forecast that the country's urban population will grow steadily from more than 50% by 2015, to more than 60% by 2030, and to more than 70% by 2045 (Danlu, 2010) (United Nations Population Division, 2010). By 2025, China could have 219 cities with more than 1 million inhabitants each, including 8 "megacities" with more than 10 million residents (McKinsey Global Institute, 2008). China also has plans to create the largest megacity in the world with 42 million residents and covering an urban area that will be 26 times larger than greater London (Moore & Foster, 2011). As people flock from rural to urban areas, the population of the rural landscape is declining, thereby opening up the landscape in the areas that are not "eaten up" by growing citites. By 2050, experts project that the rural population will have declined to 379 million (27% of the population). Even as people relocate from rural villages to townships, pressures for other uses of rural land such as timber harvest, cultivation, and energy development will continue to grow to support the country's burgeoning total population.

C. Cultivated Land
The vast majority of China's cultivated land covers the eastern monsoonal plains and river basins, including the Northeast Plains, Northern China Plains, Middle & Lower Yangtze River Plains, the Pearl River Delta, and the Sichuan Basin. According to avaialable statistics, nearly all of China's arable land, totaling 122 million hectares or 13% of the country is cultivated (Qiang, 2010). With 1.3 billion people to feed, the country places great emphasis on efficient and large-scale food production. To ensure adequate food production, the government has identified a minimum threshold or "redline" of 120 million hectares of cultivated land (Central Government, 2006). The law also requires a one-to-one replacement of any farmland that is converted to other uses, in terms of quantity and quality. In the coming years, to feed its every-growing population, the government will need to expand the area of farmland, increase farmland productivity, and/or increase grain imports. These policies and realities, combined with development and other land use pressures, are shifting the location of farmland. Some cultivated lands are being newly created from other uses such as forestry, grasslands, and wetlands, while existing cultivated lands are being converted to other uses such as built up areas, forests, and grasslands. According to a one nationwide study that assessed cultivated land changes from 1996-2005, there was a net increase of cultivated land of 2.7 million hectares (1.9%) and a net decrease of grasslands, forests, and unused land as a result of their conversion to cultivated lands (Deng et al., 2005).

D. Livestock Grazing
Intensive grazing, beyond sustainable levels, reduces biodiversity and productivity, and also causes erosion and desertification. China is the world's largest livestock consumer (AgriFood Asia), and is likely to remain so as the country's population and income levels grow. In 2004, China supported approximately 375 million grazing livestock including cattle, sheep, goats, horses, mules, and camels. China is the world's largest producer of sheep and goats, and the fourth largest producer of cattle (Figure 1-22)(Food & Agriculture Organization, 2011).

Livestock grazing is a major driver of grassland degradation in China. One source estimates that desertification costs China more than 40 billion RMB annually and affects more than 40 million people (Meyer, 2006). The accelerated and large-scale degradation and desertification of grassland ecosystems in areas with fragile environmental conditions and poor ecosystem structures have raised conserns within many organizations and institutions inside and outside of China. As a result, the government has instituted a variety of programs to combat desertification. In the 1970s, the goverment created the Three-North Shelterbelt Project and the National Project for Prevention and Control of Sandification. Then in 2002, the government launched the National Action Plan to Combat Desertification for northwestern China. This 10-year project received $8 billion of funding and included six main ecological restoration projects, aimed at controlling desertification over 22 million hectares by 2010. China also implemented a "Grassland Seed Base Program" from 2000-2002. Finally, China has also employed technical fixes to reduce desertification such as reducing livestock grazing pressure on grasslands through rodent and insect control, fencing, and improved livestock management (Su, 2006) (Waldron et al., 2008) (Wang et al., 2010). These efforts have helped to slow degradation, but have not halted or reversed it. There has been considerable debate as to the effectiveness of these programs in different regions of China. Nevertheless, in 2006, the State Forestry Administration claimed that the rate of desertification has slowed to 3,000 km2 per year from the annual rate of 10,400 km2 at the end of the last century (Reuters.com, 2006).

E. Forest Uses
To guide forest use, the Central Government passed a Forestry Law in 1984, which was subsequently updated in 1998. The Forestry Law (1998) identifies five forest types: protection, special purpose, timber, economic, and fuel. These types can be categorized as either public benefit or commercial (Figure 1-25). Public benefit forests are generally intended to remain in a natural state in order to provide ecological and human health benefits, though some economic development may be possible. By contrast, commercial forests are intended for activities which can provide revenue. According to the State Forestry Administration (SFA) (2010), commercial forests comprise 57% of forests and public benefit forests comprise 43%. Together, timber forests and protection forests comprise nearly all of the forest cover in China (94%), while special purpose forests, economic forests, and fuel forests are much rarer. China's forests have experiences several periods of significant and widespread deforestation since the late 1950s. In response, the Central Government has attempted to restore forest cover by investing upwards of 1 trillion RMB into six forest conservation programs. These programs utilize a combination of afforestation and timber harvesting bans or limits.

Figure 1-25: Types of forest in China

1. Afforestation
As of 2007, China had planted more than 49 billion trees and shrubs through government-sponsored efforts (State Forestry Administration, 2007) (Yang & Ci, 2008). In 2008 alone, 540 million people planted 4.7 million hectares of forest across the country, which is an area larger than Switzerland (Xinhua News Agency, 2009). As a result of these efforts, from 1981-2008, State Forestry Administration calculations of forest cover increased from 12% to 20% of total land cover. Forest cover has increased by approximately 12.6 million hectares since the 1980s, with the largest increases occurring in the southeast (5.3 million hectares), southwest (3.2 million hectares), and north (2.2 million hectares) (Liu & Tian, 2010).

The Central Government aims to achieve 23% forest cover by 2020, and 26% by 2050 (State Forestry Administration, 2007). Much of the reforestation and afforestation is planned for northern China, with 30% in Inner Mongolia alone to combat desertification, reduce dust storms, and maintain or restore ecosystem services such as carbon sequestration. China's afforestation efforts can be divided into two phases distinguished by their emphasis on forest type. Prior to 1997, afforestation focused largely on commercial (i.e., timber) forests. In 1980, for example, China planted 4.1 million hectares, 61% of which occurred in timber forests and 15.4% of which occurred in protection forest. After 1997, afforestation declined in timber forests and increased in protection forests through the implementation of China's six forest conservation programs such as the Natural Forest Protection Program and Grain to Green. In 2007, for example, 16% of all afforestation occurred in timber forests, while 71% of afforestation occurred in protection forests. This change reflected a shift in China's forest development strategy from economic functions to ecological functions. However, survival rates and benefits to biodiversity have been variable largely due to the planting of monocultures or limited numbers of species, as well as limited attention to topography, climate, and hydrology. China has started to expand the species it uses, recognizing that limited species diversity can leave trees susceptible to disease and insect infestations.

Based on China's aforementioned goals for future forest cover, it is expected that afforestation efforts will continue for the foreseeable future. The locations and processes for future efforts are yet to be determined, however. Several of the main afforestation programs were slated to end by 2010 including the Beijing-Tianjin Desertification Control Program and five of six projects of the Key Shelterbelt Construction Program. Two other programs could end in the near future - the Fast-Growing High-Yielding Timber Plantation Program in 2015 and Grain to Green in 2016. Whether the government will let these programs expire, renew these programs, or institute different programs remains to be seen. It should be noted that NFPP was slated to expire in 2010, but the government renewed it until 2020 and increased funding (State Forestry Administration, 2011). Furthermore, the government may encourage greater involvement of the private sector and other stakeholders. Regardless of where and how afforestation occurs, forest conservation will remain an important issue in China due to climate change, land conversion, and demand for timber.

2. Timber Harvest and the Timber Ban
The State Council sets the allowable timber harvest through the five-year provinvial quotas. China's reported harvest climbed from 6 million m3 in 1949 to 68 million m3 in 1995. It is important to note that there is almost certainly a discrepancy between reported and actual logging in China. Illegal logging is an ongoing problem in the country; producers do not necessarily adhere to quotas and undeclared production is common (Sun et al., 2005). In any case, after 1995, the timber harvest reportedly declined due to the general degradation of mature timber forest resources and the logging ban issued through the Natural Forest Protection Program (NFPP) (Zhu et al.). Through the NFPP, commercial logging of natural forests (as opposed to plantations) has ceased in 13 provinces in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River and the upper and middle reaches of the Yellow River. Commercial logging of natural forest has also been reduced in northeastern China and Inner Mongolia. (Zhang S., 2010).

The NFPP is aiding the recovering of China's forests, but is also causing a gap between domestic demand and supply. Timber consumption is on the rise; from 1989-2006, timber consumption climbed from 107 million m3 to 250 million m3, and in 2009 reached 457 million m3 (Lu) (Fordaq, 2010). If timber consumption continues to increase into the future, the gap between supply and demand will widen unless China increases domestic harvests or imports.

There are four sources of domestic timber supply; state-owned forest enterprises, state-owned forest farms, collective forest farms, and household forest farms. As of 2005, state-owned forest enterprises (135) were mostly located in northeast and southwest China, state owned forest farms (4,000) in northwest China, and collective and household farms in southern provinces such as Fujian and Guangdong. State-owned and collective/household-owned forests each contribute approximately 50% of China's domestic timber supply (Sun et al., 2005).

Government policy has been to shift timber production from state-owned natural forests to collectively-owned plantation forests. As a result, timber harvest from state-owned forests has decreased greatly while timber production from collective forests has increased (Sun et al., 2005). Collective harvests have been unexpectedly reduced in some areas, however, as the logging ban was arbitrarily extended in many areas of the country to select collective forests (China.org.cn, 2002). In any case, domestic timber harvests are likely to increase in the years to come. With the government's mass tree planting efforts, the country will certainly have timber resources to harvest, if it chooses to do so. At a minimum, harvests would occur on the 13 million hectares covered by the Fast-Growing and High-Yielding Timber Plantation Program (Table 1-6).

Table 1-6: Summary of China's six key forest conservation programs, listed in descending order of actual or needed investment.

3. Harvest of fuelwood and non-timber forest products
The demand for fuelwood in China far exceeds available resources. Annual fuelwood harvesting accounts for 33% of total forest resource consumption, while fuelwood forest accounts for only 2-3% of China's total forest area (Zhang, 2006). As a result, peasants expand their fuelwood harvests into timber forests and protection forests. To address these pressures, the State Forestry Administration aims to "actively establish" more fuelwood forests (State Forestry Administration, 2007). In addition, the government is encouraging the use of alternative energy sources such as solar cookers.

Harvest of non-timber forest products (NFTP) is also common throughout China. NFTPs include "products used as food and food additives (edible nuts, mushrooms, fruits, herbs, spices, and condiments, aromatic plants, game), fibers (used in construction, furniture, clothing or utensils), resins, gums, and plant and animal products used for medicinal purposes, 80% of which grow in forests. Other common NFTPs in places such as Yunnan Province include mushrooms, walnuts, pine nuts, ecalyptus oil, and honey (Kleinn et al, 2006). Because many NFTPs are spontaneously collected by local communities, estimates of total yield are difficult to obtain. However, the loggin ban may be prompting local communities to more sustainably harvest non-timber forest resources (Yu, 2010).

Table 1-7: Projects of the Key Shelterbelt Construction Program (State Forestry Administration) (State Forestry Administration, 2005). China invested 6.3 billion RMB in five of the six programs from 2003-2007, not including the Upper and Middle Reaches of Yangtze River shelter program. Investment for the Three Norths Shelterbelt program totaled 57.9 billion RMB. The authors did not find investment information for the other programs.

F. Mining & Energy Development
Chain has one of the largest mining sectors in the world, is the world's largest energy-producer, and is the first or second largest energy consumer (World Bank and International Finance Corporation, 2002) (U.S. Energy Information Administration, 2008). Both production and consumption of energy are on the rise, which will impact biodiversity as China constructs more coal mines, oil and gas wells, commercial wind farms, and other infrastructure to fuel its energy needs. Western and central China in particular will experience increasing pressure for energy development because many of the untapped and lesser-tapped oil and gas fields are located there, as are the coal reserves and the areas with highest potential for wind and solar energy development. Specifically, 58% of coal reserves are located in central China, while 36% of coal reserves, 12% of oi and 53% known natural gas reserves lie in western China. The abundance of available material and energy resources poses threats to fragile ecosystems in the mountainous and desert regions of central and western China, and has called for rising attention on post-mining reclamation, particularly since China has made a late start in reclamation relative to other countries (China Academy of Land & Resource Economics) (Cao, 2007).

1. Coal and Other Mining
China is the world's largest producer of coal (44% of the world in total in 2009) and a number of other minerals, such as rare earth elements which are used in electronic devices for defense, alternative energy, and communications industries (98% of the world total in 2009). It also provides gold (13% of thr world total in 2009), and in 2009, produced upwards of 25% of the world production of other minerals such as alumninum (primary), antimony, iron ore, lead, manganese ore, mercury, molybdenum, tin, tungsten, vanadium, and zinc (Table 1-8). From 2005-2009, production of all of these minerals increased by an average of 48%. Of the various forms of mining, coal mining arguably has the greatest impact on China's landscape based on the sheer volume of minerals extracted if nothing else - more than 3 billion metric tonnes according to a 2009 estimate (Brown, et al., 2011).

With 14% of the planet's known minable coal reserves, China boasts the third largest coal reserves in the world behind the U.S. and Russia (Energy Information Administration, 2011). The production and consumption of coal more than doubled between 1999 and 2009. Although the vast majority of China's provinces produce coal, it is ditributed unevenly across the country. China has approximately 30,000 caol mines, 24,000 of which are small mines that produce one-third of the country's total coal production (Yang, 2007). Most of its reserves (81%) lie in the provines of Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, Shanxi, and Shaanxi. The goverment has identified 14 large coal bases, each of which consist of a series of individual mines (Chinamining.org, 2011).

Coal and other mining activities are impacting China's landscape through land conversion, erosion, subsidence, and other means. The area directly impacted by any given mine (coal or otherwise) is relatively limited (i.e., 18-20 hectares on average for a large-scale mine) (He, 2008), but the associated infrastructure can be significant and add to the impact. For example, more than 300 cities and towns had been established around mining projects in China as of 2006 (He, 2008). During the early 1990s, domestic mining activities resulted in the loss of approximately 1 million hectares of cultivated land (approximately 1% of total domestic cultivated land at that time), 1 million hectares of forest land, and 260,000 hectares of grassland (Liu). Addording to another source, by 2004, mining had destroyed or degraded 2 million hectares and by 2008, the number had increased to 3 million hectares (Wang, 2004) (Li, 2009). Subsidence and erosion also impact the landscape - he mining area. In the Huabei and Huadong coal mining regions, coal mining causes the sudsidence of approximately 7,000 hectares annually (He, 2008). In Yunnan Province, 2,000 hectares of land were destroyed in geological disasters caused by mining from 1989-2000, and 22 million tons of soil eroded. The government invested 200 million RMB in post-disaster treatment (Zou & Mao, 2004).

Table 1-8: Production of select minerals for which China produced at least 25% of the world's total in 2009 (Brown, et al., 2011)

2. Oil
China is the fourth largest producer of oil behind Saudi Arabia, Russia, and the U.S., and is the second largest consumer of oil behind the U.S. (Centreal Intelligence Agency, 2011). Since the early 1990s, its oil consumption has grown at a far faster rate than it oil production. In fact, oil production has remained relatively flat for the last two decades. Companies have already tapped the larges and most easily accessed oil fields and have increased production in harder-to-access reserves to offset slowdowns in older fields.

Approximately 85% of China's oil capacity is located onshore and 15% is located offshore. The onshore resources are distributed widely throughout the country and their productivity varies greatly. The largest and oldest oil fields such as Daqing and Shengli are located in the northeastern part of the country (Energy Information Administration, 2011).

On-shore production growth is expected to remain stable. Newew exploration and production has been focused in western China including, but not limited to, Xinjiang, Sichuan, Gansu, and Inner Mongolia. The Energy Information Administration (2011) reports exploration and production acitivities within the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (Ordos Basin) and the Xinjiang Uygar Autonomous Region (Junggar, Turpan-Hami, and Tarim Basins).

Production from China's offshore resources is expected to increase. For example, the China National Offshore Oil Corporation (CNOOC) plans to double its production in Bohai Bay. Offshore areas of focus include the Bohai Bay region in northeastern China (the oldest oil-producing offshore zone and the second-largest producing oil field in China in 2010), the Pearl River Delta, and the South China Swa. The East China Sea has received lesser attention.

3. Natural Gas
China has moderate domestic natural gas reserves; its production and consumption more than doubled between 2001 and 2007. According to one estimate, the country is ranked thirteenth in the world in terms of proven natural gas reserves, with 3 trillion cubic meters. By comparison, Russia - the top-ranked country - has 16 times the reserves of China, while the U.S. - the fifth-ranked country - has more than double the reserves (Centreal Intelligence Agency, 2011). China's production of natural gas is on par with that of the Netherlands and Norway and is ranked eighth in the world. The U.S. and Russia are currently the top producers in the world, each with an annual output that is more than 6 times that of China's (Central Intelligence Agency, 2011).

Onshore, China's known natural gas deposits are located primarily in Shaanxi inthe north (Ordos Basin), Xinjiang and Qinghai in the northwest (Tarim, Junggar, and Qaidam Basins), and Sichuan in the southwest (Sichuan Basin), Xinjiang produces the most gas of any province. The Tarim Basin is likely to focus on significant additional development, given that it holds half of China's proven reserves, but only 12% of the basin had been explored as of 2009. Offshore, the South China Sea and Bohai Bay in the Yellow Sea are the focus of most natural gas development (Energy Information Administration, 2011).

4. Hydropower
According to at least one expert, China is experiencing an "absolute, incredible proliferation of hydropower construction " (Harrison, 2011). This construction will continue: In January 2011, the Central Government released the "No.1 Document" and The Decisions on Speeding-up Reform of Water and Resources, which established water conservation as a primary goal of the country over the next 5-10 years. China plans to complete the "harnessing" of major medium - and small-sized rivers during the 12th Five-Year Guideline (2011-2015), and will invest 4 trillion RMB into the construction of water facilities over the next decade (Zhu, 2011) (chinanews.com, 2011) (Yao & Lin, 2011).

China boasts the greatest hydropower potential and number of hydropower stations of any country in the world, and less than half of its 542 million kw of technically feasible capacity has been developed to date (Zhao, 2009). China doubled its total installed capacity between 2004 and 2010, from 100 million kw to 200 million kw. The Three Gorges Dam in Hubei Province, operational in 2008, has the largest hydropower capacity of any dam on the planet (18,200 MW), as well as the notoreity for displacing the most people (1.2 million), flodding the largest number of cities and towns (13 cities, 140 towns, 1,350 villages), and creating the longest reservoir on Earth (more than 600 kilometers) (International Rivers).

China tallied 45,000 hydropower stations as of 2010 and more than 85,000 dams as of 2007 (Wang & Zhao, 2010) (Guo et al., 2010). As of 2007, 5,2000 of those dams (either built or under construction) were higher than 30m, and more than 140 dams were slated to be over 100m high (WAng & Zhao, 2010). The country is in the process of constructing the world's tallest dam, Shuangjiangkou Dam in Sichuan Province, which will be 312m high - nearly the height of the China World Trade Center in Beijing. Small dams are also very common throughout China, generally built by private companies and local governments for hydropower.

Mass construction of additional hydropower stations and dams will continue, fueld by the country's desires for electricity, flood control, water supply, and irrigation. In 2009, the National Development and Reform Commission (NRDC) announces a goal to increase non-fossil fuel energy consumption to 15% of the primary energy mix by 2020, and to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 40-50% from 2005 levels (www.yunnan.cn, 2010); to meet this goal, at least 330 million kw of hydropower is required.