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= Parfleche = A parfleche is an Indigenous, decorated rawhide container originating from the Great Plains region in the seventeenth century. While buffalo-rawhide crafts (such as painted robes) were at their zenith during the time of European contact, scholars pair the development of the parfleche with the introduction of the horse to North America, by the Spanish. The increased mobility and nomadic lifestyle allowed by the horse, meant that essential goods such as preserved foods (including pemmican), clothing, and even ceremonial items needed to be transported efficiently using lightweight and weatherproof packaging. While the most common form of the parfleche was the folded envelope, they were also constructed as laced flat cases, cylinders, and trunks.

The word "parfleche" was originally used by French fur traders, combining parer which means "to parry" or " to defend," and fleche which means "arrow”. It was originally used to describe tough rawhide shields, but later co-opted for decorated rawhide containers.  Many Indigenous peoples have their own names for these versatile packages, including hoem shot (Tsehestano), nes-kes-cha (Apsáalooke) and ham-wana (Hinono'eino).  The production of parfleche declined drastically with the near extinction of the Plains buffalo herds, and the forced relocation of Indigenous peoples onto government reservations.  Some nations, such as Niisitapi continued to produce parfleche into the twentieth century.

Manufacture
In contrast to the numerous products made from tanned leather, parfleche was constructed exclusively of rawhide. The process was initiated with “fleshing”, or the removal of hide from animals such as elk, deer, and most commonly buffalo. Bone tools fashioned into chisels were useful for the task of fleshing. Next, the hide was stretched by staking it above the ground, and scraped to an even thickness. Then a glutinous wash (of prickly pear cactus juice or animal glue) was applied for protection, and the hide was painted before it dried. Until the 1890s, natural paints were overwhelmingly used and they were derived from substances such as charcoal (black), algae (green) and yellow ochre (red). Because artists had a limited amount of time to paint the parfleche design, they had to work with boldness and expertise as revisions were not possible. Once the paint was dry, the hide’s opposite side was de-haired using a “stoning” method, and the outline of the parfleche was cut using a flint or metal knife. Lastly, the container was folded into its final shape and holes were cut or burned to insert ties and laces.

Indigenous Craftswomen
Parfleche are notable crafts as their production was almost exclusively the work of Indigenous craftswomen. There is evidence that these craftswomen were often organized into local guilds and had elected senior leaders who would pass on skills, knowledge and spiritual guidance to their proteges. Guilds can also be credited with the consistency in parfleche design among many nations, as they enforced rules for the creation and design of the crafts. A woman could see a rise in her status and wealth if she honed her artistic skills, as artisans enjoyed a respected positions in many societies.

Modern historians note the unfortunate truth that, while parfleche are collected and admired as art pieces today, their female creators (who would have been renowned in their own communities) remain largely unknown to us.

Distinctive Designs
Parfleche have been historically recognized for their region-specific and uniquely painted designs. This is consistent with the immense geographic, linguistic, and ethnic diversity of the Plains, where many nomadic and semi-nomadic Indigenous peoples routinely migrated to different areas. This level of movement is displayed in the diversity of parfleche characteristics, that modern comparative studies have defined in over twenty ways, including: use of color, painting technique, presence or absence of fringe, flap shape, border design, number of tie holes, side-flap decoration and the amount of unpainted surface. While the most frequent decorative elements were geometric shapes such as straight or curved lines, triangles, and rhomboids, the specific combinations of these shapes by different artists resulted in an endless variety of designs.

To illustrate, while most Očhéthi Šakówiŋ parfleche were painted in bold colors and featured heavy black outlining, the Tsehestano parfleche only used subdued colors and displayed large amounts of unpainted surface. Hinono'eino, who were allies and neighbors to both nations, borrowed from them, and while some of their parfleche feature the delicate colors of the Tsehestano, others display the heavy outlining of the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ. Apart from painting, there was also great diversity in form, as Ka'igwu were known to create large cylinders to store rolled feather headdresses, but the Lakȟóta only produced small cylinders to hold smaller ceremonial items.

Political Significance
As parfleche designs reflected local preferences, scholars have suggested that they served a political role as flags for the many nations across the Plains. This is plausible as they were often constructed in pairs, and hung on both sides of the horse during travel. Due to their large size and bold, unique designs, they would have been easily recognized from afar by both enemies and allies. Research also finds that in contrast to less political objects, such as moccasins, parfleche designs were almost never transmitted to regional enemies and only selectively borrowed by allies and trade partners. The geographical distribution of parfleche characteristics also reveals the key role of local trade networks, such as the Sosoni Rendezvous and the Middle Missouri trade system in disseminating design features.

Spiritual Symbolism
While parfleche were overwhelmingly used for the practical purposes of storing and transporting goods, their production and utility could also have a spiritual aspect. For instance, the common geometric shape of the diamond was symbolic for the Očhéthi Šakówiŋ, who believed it represented the turtle, and women’s sacred power. Similarly, Apsáalooke believed the diamond was a symbol for the sand lizard, who was believed to hold a protective power. At other times, celestial symbols such as the sun, moon or morning star could also be incorporated into designs, reflecting the world views of the nation they came from.

Last but not least, during the designing stage, Hinono'eino women believed they would receive assistance from the "Whirlwind Woman", who was the first woman. Likewise,Očhéthi Šakówiŋ women believed they would dream of the "Double Woman", who offered guidance on designing, and this visionary design would then be copied by the other female artisans in the community.