User:Nbarnes7/sandbox

language acquisition by deaf children, changes i am working on.

New parents with a deaf infant are faced with a range of options for how to interact with their newborn, and may try several methods that include different amounts of sign language, oral/auditory language training, and communicative codes invented to facilitate acquisition of spoken language. (In addition, parents may decide to use cochlear implants or hearing aids with their infants. According to one US-based study from 2008, approximately 55% of eligible deaf infants received cochlear implants. A study in Switzerland found that 80% of deaf infants were given cochlear implants as of 2006 and the numbers have been steadily increasing. While cochlear implants provide auditory stimulation, not all children succeed at acquiring spoken language completely. many children with implants often continue to struggle in a spoken language only environment, even when support is being given.(44) Children who received cochlear implants before twelve months old were found to be significantly more likely to perform at age-level standards for spoken language than children who received implants later. '''however there is research that shows that the information given to parents is often not correct or missing important information.(10) this can lead them to make decisions that might not be the best for their child. (10) parents need time to make informed decisions, as most deaf children are born to hearing parents, they have to make decisions on things that they have never had to think about before. (13)'''

Research shows that deaf children who listen and speak to communicate, but do not use sign language have better communication outcomes and social well-being than Deaf children who use sign language. '''However, sign language is often only recommended as a last resort with parents being told not to use sign language with their child. (10) Though implants offer many benefits for children, including potential gains in hearing and academic achievement, they are unable to fix deafness. A child who is born deaf will always be deaf, (2) and they will likely still face many challenges that a hearing child will not. (2) there is also research that shows that early deprivation of language and sign language, before an implant is fitted can affect the ability to learn language. (10) there is no definitive research that states whether implants or singing has the best outcomes. (14) ultimately the decision comes down to the parents, they have the responsibility to make the choices that are best for their child. (13)'''

Acquisition of Signed Language[ edit]

'''Children need language from birth, for deaf infants they should have access to sign language from birth or as young as possible (10) with research showing that the critical period of language acquisition applies to sign language too. (12) sign language is much like other languages in that it is much harder to learn when the child is past the critical age of development for language acquisition. Studies have found that children who learnt sign language at birth understand much more than children who start learning sign language at an older age. Also, studies have shown that the younger a child is when learning sign language, the better their language out comes are. (12)'''

Sign languages have natural prosodic patterns and infants are sensitive to these prosodic boundaries even if they have no specific experience with sign languages. 6-month-old hearing infants with no sign experience also preferentially attend to sign language stimuli over complex gesture, indicating that they are perceiving sign language as meaningful linguistic input. Since infants attend to spoken and signed language in a similar manner, several researchers have concluded that much of language acquisition is universal, not tied to the modality of the language, and that sign languages are acquired and processed very similarly to spoken languages, given adequate exposure. At the same time, these and other researchers point out that there are many unknowns in terms of how a visual language might be processed differently than a spoken language, particularly given the unusual path of language transmission for most deaf infants.

Research shows that deaf parents with deaf infants are more successful than hearing parents at capturing moments of joint attention when signing, which are privileged language learning moments. Deaf mothers are more adept at ensuring that the infant is visually engaged prior to signing and use specific modifications to their signing, referred to as child-directed sign to gain and maintain their children's attention. Just as in child-directed speech (CDS), child-directed signing is characterized by slower production, exaggerated prosody, and repetition. Due to the unique demands of a visual language, child-directed signing also includes tactile strategies and relocation of language into the child's line of vision.

About three percent of deaf children are born to two deaf parents, with one percent born to one hearing and one deaf parent.undefined

Signing and manual methods[ edit]

'''Sign languages which are signed languages are much like spoken languages. They will appear naturally amongst deaf groups even if no formal sign language has been taught. They are very much the same as a spoken language. (1) it has been known for some time that natural sign languages are much like English and Spanish, they are true languages (2) children learn them in much the same way as a spoken language and they follow the same social expectations of language systems (4)  there are many different sign languages used around the world.(6)'''  sign language employs signs made by moving one's hands along with one's facial expressions and body language. Some studies indicate that if a deaf child learns sign language, he or she will be less likely to learn spoken languages because they will lose motivation.(44) However, Humphries insists that there is no evidence for this. undefined  '''one of Humphries arguments is that many hearing children learn multiple languages and do not lose the motivation to do so. (44) other studies have shown that sign language actually aids spoken language development (2) understanding and using sign language provides the platform that is needed to develop other language skills (3) it can also provide the foundation for learning the meaning of written words (3). Some of the main sign languages used around the world include American sign language, British sign language and French sign language.'''

ASL (American sign language)[ edit]

'''ASL is mostly used in north America, though derivative forms are used in various places around the world including most of Canada. (5) ASL is not simply a translation of English works, this is demonstrated by the fact that words that have dual meaning in English have different signs for each individual meaning in ASL. (6)'''

BSL (British sign language)

'''BSL is mainly used in Great Britain, with derivatives being used in Australia and New Zealand. (5) British sign language has its own syntax and grammar rules. It is different from spoken English (7) though hearing people in America and the United Kingdom share a language, ASL and BSL are different meaning that deaf children in English speaking countries do not have a shared language. (8)'''

'''

LSF (French sign language)'''

'''Is used in France as well as many other countries in Europe. The influence of French sign language can be seen all around the world, including in American sign language. (5)'''

Hybrid methods[ edit]

Hybrid methods use a mixture of aural/oral methods as well as some visible indicators such as hand shapes in order to communicate in the standard spoken language by making parts of it visible to those with hearing loss.

'''One example of this is sign supported English which is used in the United Kingdom. (7) It is a type of sign language that is used mainly with children who are hard of hearing in schools. It is used alongside English and the signs are used in the same order as spoken English. (7)'''

'''Another hybrid method is called Total Communication. This method of communication allows and encourages the user to use all methods of communication. (9) these can include spoken language, signed language and lip reading. (9) like sign supported English signs are used in spoken English order. (9) the use of hearing aids or implants is really highly recommended for this form of communication. It is only recently that ASL has been an accepted form of communication to be used in the total communication method. (11)'''

'''(1)  Sandler, Wendy; & Lillo-Martin, Diane. (2006). Sign Language and Linguistic Universals. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.'''

(2)   https://books.google.com/books?id=sHKPk2Sit3gC&printsec=frontcover&dq=how+deaf+children+learn&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjZhPruucXoAhWLJTQIHYHiBoIQ6AEwAHoECAIQAg#v=onepage&q=how%20deaf%20children%20learn&f=false (how deaf children learn)

(3)   https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=Hn2OAwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA165&dq=how+sign+learning+sign+language+aids+learning+spoken+language&ots=00Irzij8og&sig=68ubAdpQS6uAzArigamxO17z4k8#v=onepage&q=how%20sign%20learning%20sign%20language%20aids%20learning%20spoken%20language&f=false (language acquisition by eye)

'''(4)   Sandler, Wendy; & Lillo-Martin, Diane. (2006). Sign Language and Linguistic Universals. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.'''

(5)   https://books.google.com/books?id=lxpuT_s8AkEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Sociolinguistics+of+Sign+Languages&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiuzN2bt8roAhXUPH0KHWqEDj8Q6AEwAHoECAAQAg#v=onepage&q=The%20Sociolinguistics%20of%20Sign%20Languages&f=false (The Sociolinguistics of Sign Languages)

(6)   What is Sign Language?". Archived from the original on 13 February 2018. Retrieved 10 March 2018. https://www.linguisticsociety.org/content/what-sign-language 

(7)   https://www.british-sign.co.uk/what-is-british-sign-language/ 

(8)   https://www.signcommunity.org.uk/british-sign-language.html 

(9)   https://www.cdss.ca.gov/cdssweb/entres/pdf/ODA/CommunicationOptionsDHOH_Child.pdf 

(10) Infants and Children with Hearing Loss Need Early Language Access  bnhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3072291/

(11) https://www.rchsd.org/programs-services/cochlear-implant-program/communication-options/ 

(12) https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8b28/d562cd0fa37b0fb9aae023bb843220da2b53.pdf?_ga=2.108670402.1967609622.1585864436-1333711509.1585864436 THE CRITICAL PERIOD FOR LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND THE DEAF CHILD'S LANGUAGE COMPREHENSION : A PSYCHOLINGUISTIC APPROACH

(13) https://journalofethics.ama-assn.org/article/avoiding-assumptions-communication-decisions-made-hearing-parents-deaf-children/2016-04 

(14) https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=0mmJAgAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PA331&dq=negatives+of+cochlear+implants&ots=76vq20IKRU&sig=DgwCalF20A66OLj7lH3U0HWcLtY#v=onepage&q=negatives%20of%20cochlear%20implants&f=false negatives of cochlear implants