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PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Psychology includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, including feelings and thoughts. It is an academic discipline of immense scope, crossing the boundaries between the natural and social sciences

BRANCHES OF PSYCHOLOGY

Eight types of psychology to consider a career in include:

abnormal, biopsychology, social, cognitive, developmental, personality, forensic, and industrial-organizational.

Psychology can be roughly divided into two major areas:

1.	Research, which seeks to increase our knowledge base.

2.	Practice, through which our knowledge is applied to solving problems in the real world.

Psychological theories attempt to explain and predict human behavior. They can be tested and are backed by evidence. There are five major theories, also called grand theories. These are Behavioral, Psychodynamic, Humanistic, Cognitive, and Biological.

APPLIED ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

Applied Organizational Psychology is the scientific examination of how human cognition, attitudes, and behavior are affected by the context of leaders, co-workers, and organizational policies, structure, culture, etc. It can also b referred to as industrial psychology.

Industrial and organizational (I/O) psychologists focus on the behavior of employees in the workplace. They apply psychological principles and research methods to improve the overall work environment, including performance, communication, professional satisfaction, and safety.

TOPICS ADDRESSED

Here are some of the specific topics addressed by industrial-organizational psychology experts:

Employee motivation: Professionals in this field may also use psychological principles to help keep workers motivated.

Employee testing: Psychological principles and tests are often used by I-O psychologists to help businesses select candidates that are best suited to specific job roles.

Leadership: I-O psychologists may work to help leaders develop better strategies or train managers to utilize different leadership skills to manage team members more effectively.

Product design: Some I-O psychologists are involved in the development of consumer or workplace products.

Workplace diversity: Within the area of organizational psychology, professionals in this field may help businesses develop hiring practices that foster greater diversity as well as train employees on diversity and inclusion.

Workplace performance: I-O psychologists often study behavior in the workplace to design environments and procedures that maximize employee performance.

This discipline is mainly focused on finding the problems in how people interact to make them even more productive to improve effectiveness and efficiency to civilize the human race even more

Theories in Industrial and Organizational Psychology And their Application in the LIS field. As Industrial and Organizational Psychology isn’t exactly a new branch of science, there is plenty of research and theory readily already available to future researchers. These theories span from behavioral theories, to leadership theories and beyond. Behavioral theory is most commonly applied however in Industrial and Organizational Psychology. According to Muchinsky's book, Psychology Applied to Work: An Introduction to Industrial and Organizational Psychology, most industrial-organizational psychologists work in one of six major subject areas:

Employee selection: This area involves developing employee selection assessments, such as screening tests to determine if job applicants are qualified for a particular position.

Ergonomics: The field of ergonomics involves designing procedures and equipment designed to maximize performance and minimize injury.

Organizational development: I-O psychologists who work in this area help improve organizations, often through increasing profits, redesigning products, and improving the organizational structure.

Performance management: I-O psychologists who work in this area develop assessments and techniques to determine if employees are doing their jobs well.

Training and development: Professionals in this area often determine what type of skills are necessary to perform specific jobs as well as develop and evaluate employee training programs.

Work-life: This area focuses on improving employee satisfaction and maximizing the productivity of the workforce. I-O psychologists in this area might work to find ways to make jobs more rewarding or design programs that improve the quality of life in the workplace.

The Job Characteristics Theory Greg Oldham and Richard Hackman developed their Job Characteristics model as a build-on to existing theories regarding employee motivation, the difference was that previous theories of motivation discussed human behavior in general and this model was meant to specifically cover motivation factors in the workplace. The theory is based on the concept that there are five main factors in job design that will lead to increased employee motivation. Job Characteristics Theory (JCT) in organizational psychology suggests that certain job characteristics can lead to improved employee motivation, job satisfaction, and performance. JCT identifies five key job characteristics: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback. In libraries, the application of JCT can help managers design jobs that are engaging and fulfilling for employees, which can lead to improved outcomes for the library. Here are some examples of how JCT can be applied in libraries:

1.	Skill Variety: JCT suggests that jobs that require a variety of skills can lead to improved employee motivation and performance. In libraries, this could involve designing jobs that require a range of skills, such as reference work, cataloging, and programming, which can provide employees with opportunities to use their skills and knowledge.

2.	Task Identity: JCT suggests that jobs that involve a clear sense of task identity can lead to improved employee motivation and performance. In libraries, this could involve designing jobs that have a clear beginning, middle, and end, such as a project to develop a new program or service.

3.	Task Significance: JCT suggests that jobs that have a clear sense of task significance can lead to improved employee motivation and performance. In libraries, this could involve designing jobs that have a clear impact on patrons, such as helping a patron find a book that they need or developing a program that meets a community's needs.

4.	Autonomy: JCT suggests that jobs that provide employees with autonomy can lead to improved employee motivation and performance. In libraries, this could involve providing employees with the freedom to make decisions about their work, such as choosing which programs to develop or which books to purchase.

5.	Feedback: JCT suggests that jobs that provide employees with feedback can lead to improved employee motivation and performance. In libraries, this could involve providing employees with regular feedback on their performance, such as through performance evaluations, customer feedback, or peer evaluations.

Overall, the application of JCT can help libraries create jobs that are engaging, fulfilling, and meaningful for employees, which can lead to improved employee motivation, job satisfaction, and performance. By designing jobs that provide skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback, libraries can improve employee engagement, productivity, and outcomes for the library. This, in turn, can lead to better service to patrons, increased productivity, and improved outcomes for the library.

Self-Leadership Theory Self-leadership is a process wherein humans use specific sets of behavioral and cognitive strategies to better lead themselves in the direction of both motivating and not normally motivating tasks (Ulrich, 2017). Natural self-leadership strategies are aimed at increasing a person’s internal motivation to accomplish a certain task by either changing the task itself or by rewarding or changing one’s perceptions of the task by focusing on its more rewarding aspects (Ulrich, 2017). Self-leadership strategies positively influence variables such as mood, stress, and satisfaction, which are often considered mediators of performance and organizational outcomes such as absences and turnover (Ulrich, 2017).

Self-leadership theory in organizational psychology suggests that individuals can take control of their behaviors and guide themselves toward achieving their goals, which can lead to improved performance and job satisfaction. In libraries, the application of self-leadership theory can help employees become more engaged and motivated, and take responsibility for their own personal and professional development. Here are some examples of how self-leadership theory can be applied in libraries:

1.	Setting Personal Goals: Self-leadership theory suggests that individuals should set personal goals and take steps to achieve them. In libraries, this could involve encouraging employees to set goals for their professional development, such as learning new skills or taking on new responsibilities, and providing them with the resources and support they need to achieve those goals.

2.	Using Positive Self-Talk: Self-leadership theory suggests that individuals can use positive self-talk to build confidence and motivation. In libraries, this could involve encouraging employees to adopt a positive mindset and to use affirmations and positive self-talk to build confidence and motivation.

3.	Fostering Creativity: Self-leadership theory suggests that individuals can take a proactive approach to solve problems and generating new ideas. In libraries, this could involve encouraging employees to think creatively and to take initiative in developing new programs, services, and initiatives.

4.	Promoting Self-Reflection: Self-leadership theory suggests that individuals should engage in self-reflection to assess their strengths and weaknesses and identify areas for improvement. In libraries, this could involve encouraging employees to engage in self-reflection through performance evaluations, self-assessments, and feedback from colleagues.

Overall, the application of self-leadership theory can help libraries create a culture of self-directed learning and development, where employees are encouraged to take responsibility for their growth and development. By setting personal goals, using positive self-talk, fostering creativity, and promoting self-reflection, libraries can improve employee motivation, job satisfaction, and organizational performance. This, in turn, can lead to better service to patrons, increased productivity, and improved outcomes for the library.

Social Exchange Theory

Social exchange theory is one of the most influential conceptual paradigms for understanding human behavior both in and out of the workplace. Over the years, differing perspectives on the social exchange have evolved, bridging disciples such as anthropology, sociology, organizational theory, and social psychology (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2017). As a result, social exchange theory cannot be thought of as only one single model; instead, it is a general framework or conceptual point of view about how resources are valued and exchanged Social exchange theory in organizational psychology suggests that individuals engage in a social exchange process in which they give and receive benefits from others, which can influence their attitudes, behaviors, and relationships. In libraries, the application of social exchange theory can help managers build positive relationships with employees and create a supportive work environment that fosters employee motivation, job satisfaction, and organizational performance. Here are some examples of how social exchange theory can be applied in libraries:

1.	Providing Resources: Social exchange theory suggests that individuals are more likely to reciprocate when they receive benefits from others. In libraries, this could involve providing employees with the resources they need to perform their jobs effectively, such as access to training, professional development opportunities, and technology.

2.	Recognizing and Rewarding Performance: Social exchange theory suggests that individuals are more likely to reciprocate when they receive recognition and rewards for their efforts. In libraries, this could involve recognizing and rewarding employees for their performance and contributions, such as through bonuses, promotions, or public recognition.

3.	Fostering Positive Relationships: Social exchange theory suggests that individuals are more likely to engage in positive behaviors when they have positive relationships with others. In libraries, this could involve building positive relationships with employees through open communication, collaboration, and mutual respect.

4.	Providing Support: Social exchange theory suggests that individuals are more likely to reciprocate when they receive support from others. In libraries, this could involve providing employees with emotional support, such as through counseling services, employee assistance programs, or mentoring.

Overall, the application of social exchange theory can help libraries create a positive work environment that promotes employee motivation, job satisfaction, and organizational performance. By providing resources, recognizing and rewarding performance, fostering positive relationships, and providing support, libraries can improve employee engagement, productivity, and outcomes for the library. This, in turn, can lead to better service to patrons, increased productivity, and improved outcomes for the library.

Scientific Management Theory

This theory was developed by Frederick Taylor in the late 1800s and early 1900s. It focuses on the idea that work should be broken down into small, repetitive tasks, and that workers should be trained to perform these tasks efficiently. The goal is to increase productivity and efficiency. The application of the scientific management theory of organizational psychology in libraries involves breaking down library tasks into smaller, repetitive tasks and developing procedures for performing those tasks efficiently. This approach can improve productivity and streamline library operations. Here are some examples of how the scientific management theory can be applied in libraries:

1.	Cataloguing and Classification: The scientific management theory can be applied to the cataloging and classification of library materials. Library staff can use established procedures and guidelines to quickly and accurately catalog and classify books, ensuring that they are readily accessible to library patrons.

2.	Circulation Desk Operations: The scientific management theory can be applied to circulation desk operations, such as checking out and returning library materials. Library staff can be trained to perform these tasks quickly and efficiently, ensuring that patrons have a positive experience at the library.

3.	Shelving and Maintenance: The scientific management theory can be applied to the shelving and maintenance of library materials. Staff can be trained to shelve books in a specific order and follow established maintenance procedures to keep the library materials in good condition.

4.	Reference Services: The scientific management theory can be applied to reference services, such as answering patron questions and providing research assistance. Library staff can be trained to use established resources and procedures to quickly and accurately assist patrons.

Overall, the scientific management theory can help libraries operate more efficiently and effectively. By breaking down tasks into smaller, repetitive tasks and developing procedures for performing those tasks, library staff can improve productivity, streamline operations, and provide better service to patrons.

Human Relations Theory

This theory emerged in the 1930s and 1940s and emphasized the importance of social factors in the workplace. It suggests that a positive work environment and good relationships among co-workers can lead to higher levels of job satisfaction and motivation.

The human relations theory of organizational psychology emphasizes the importance of creating a positive work environment and good relationships among co-workers to improve employee motivation, job satisfaction, and performance. In libraries, the application of human relations theory can improve staff morale and enhance the quality of service provided to patrons. Here are some examples of how the human relations theory can be applied in libraries:

1.	Staff Training and Development: The human relations theory suggests that employees are more motivated and satisfied when they feel valued and invested in by their employer. Providing opportunities for staff training and development can help employees feel valued and supported, and can also enhance their skills and abilities.

2.	Staff Recognition and Appreciation: The human relations theory emphasizes the importance of recognizing and appreciating employees for their contributions to the organization. In libraries, this could involve celebrating staff accomplishments, acknowledging staff efforts, and providing feedback and praise for good work.

3.	Communication and Collaboration: The human relations theory suggests that open communication and collaboration among co-workers can improve relationships and enhance job satisfaction. In libraries, this could involve regular staff meetings, brainstorming sessions, and team-building activities.

4.	Leadership Style: The human relations theory suggests that a supportive leadership style can enhance employee motivation and job satisfaction. In libraries, this could involve leaders who listen to staff concerns, provide feedback and guidance, and work collaboratively with staff to solve problems.

Overall, the human relations theory can help libraries create a positive work environment, improve staff morale, and enhance the quality of service provided to patrons. By valuing staff contributions, providing training and development opportunities, encouraging communication and collaboration, and promoting supportive leadership, libraries can create a workplace culture that motivates and supports employees.

Contingency Theory

This theory suggests that there is no one "best" way to organize a company, and that the best way to structure an organization depends on a variety of factors, including the organization's goals, the industry it operates in, and the external environment. The contingency theory of organizational psychology suggests that there is no one-size-fits-all approach to management, and that the best management style depends on the specific situation or context. In libraries, the application of contingency theory can help managers tailor their approach to the specific needs and characteristics of the organization and its employees. Here are some examples of how the contingency theory can be applied in libraries:

1.	Leadership Style: The contingency theory suggests that the best leadership style depends on the situation. In libraries, leaders may need to adopt different leadership styles depending on the task, the employees involved, and the organizational culture. For example, a participative leadership style may be more effective when working with a team of experienced librarians, while a directive leadership style may be more effective when training new staff.

2.	Organizational structure: The contingency theory suggests that the best organizational structure depends on the situation. In libraries, the organizational structure may need to be adapted to fit the specific needs of the library, its resources, and its patrons. For example, a small library with limited resources may have a flatter organizational structure with less hierarchy, while a larger library with more resources may have a more complex organizational structure with more hierarchy.

3.	Job Design: The contingency theory suggests that the best job design depends on the situation. In libraries, job design may need to be tailored to the specific needs of the library, its resources, and its employees. For example, a librarian in a small library may have a broader range of job duties than a librarian in a larger library with more specialized positions.

4.	Decision-making: The contingency theory suggests that the best decision-making approach depends on the situation. In libraries, decision-making may need to be adapted to fit the specific needs of the library, its resources, and its employees. For example, a participative decision-making approach may be more effective when making decisions that impact staff members, while a directive decision-making approach may be more effective when making decisions related to organizational policies and procedures.

Overall, the contingency theory can help libraries tailor their management approach to the specific needs and characteristics of the organization and its employees. By adapting leadership style, organizational structure, job design, and decision-making to the situation, libraries can improve employee motivation, job satisfaction, and performance, and provide better service to patrons.

Goal-Setting Theory

This theory emphasizes the importance of setting specific, challenging goals for employees. It suggests that clear goals can increase motivation and performance.

The goal-setting theory of organizational psychology suggests that setting specific and challenging goals can motivate employees to work harder and achieve better performance. In libraries, the application of goal setting theory can help managers set clear expectations, align employee goals with organizational objectives, and provide employees with feedback on their progress. Here are some examples of how the goal-setting theory can be applied in libraries:

1.	Clear Expectations: The goal-setting theory suggests that employees are more likely to be motivated when they have clear expectations about what is expected of them. In libraries, this could involve setting clear performance expectations, such as specific targets for book circulation, program attendance, or customer satisfaction scores.

2.	SMART Goals: The goal-setting theory suggests that goals should be Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, and Time-bound (SMART). In libraries, this could involve setting SMART goals for employees that are aligned with the library's strategic objectives, such as increasing digital resources, expanding outreach efforts, or improving community engagement.

3.	Feedback and Support: The goal-setting theory suggests that employees are more likely to be motivated when they receive regular feedback on their progress and support in achieving their goals. In libraries, this could involve providing regular feedback on employee performance, coaching and training to improve skills and competencies, and resources to support employees in achieving their goals.

4.	Recognition and Reward: The goal-setting theory suggests that employees are more likely to be motivated when they receive recognition and rewards for achieving their goals. In libraries, this could involve recognizing employees who achieve their goals through public acknowledgement, incentives such as bonuses or time off, or opportunities for professional development.

Overall, the goal-setting theory can help libraries improve employee motivation, performance, and job satisfaction by setting clear expectations, providing SMART goals, giving feedback and support, and recognizing and rewarding employee achievements. By aligning employee goals with organizational objectives and providing a clear roadmap for success, libraries can improve service to patrons and achieve their strategic objectives.

Equity Theory

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This theory emphasizes the importance of fairness in the workplace. It suggests that employees will be more motivated and satisfied if they believe that they are being treated fairly in comparison to their co worke

s. The equity theory of organizational psychology suggests that employees compare their input (effort, skill, experience) and output (salary, benefits, recognition) to those of their colleagues and peers. If they perceive an imbalance between their inputs and outputs relative to others, they may feel demotivated and dissatisfied. In libraries, the application of equity theory can help managers ensure that employee perceptions of fairness are met and that all employees are treated equitably. Here are some examples of how equity theory can be applied in libraries:

1.	Fair Compensation: The equity theory suggests that employees expect to receive fair compensation relative to their colleagues and peers. In libraries, this could involve ensuring that salaries and benefits are competitive and commensurate with employees' skills and experience, and conducting regular salary surveys to compare with other organizations. 2.	Equal Opportunities: The equity theory suggests that employees expect equal opportunities for advancement and career development. In libraries, this could involve providing equal opportunities for promotion, training, and development, and ensuring that all employees have access to professional development resources and opportunities. 3.	Transparency and Communication: The equity theory suggests that employees expect transparency and communication about organizational decisions and processes. In libraries, this could involve providing regular updates on organizational decisions, including budgetary, staffing, and resource allocation, and seeking employee feedback and input on decisions that affect them. 4.	Recognition and Rewards: The equity theory suggests that employees expect to receive recognition and rewards that are commensurate with their contributions and effort. In libraries, this could involve providing opportunities for employees to be recognized for their contributions through awards, bonuses, or other incentives, and ensuring that employees receive fair and timely recognition and rewards for their work.

Overall, the equity theory can help libraries create a positive organizational culture that promotes fairness, transparency, and communication. By ensuring that employees perceive equity in their compensation, opportunities, and recognition, libraries can improve employee motivation, engagement, and job satisfaction. This, in turn, can lead to better service to patrons, increased productivity, and improved organizational performance

Expectancy Theory This theory suggests that employees will be motivated if they believe that their efforts will lead to good performance, and that good performance will lead to desirable outcomes. The expectancy theory of organizational psychology suggests that employees are motivated to perform better when they perceive that their efforts will lead to better performance, which in turn will lead to better outcomes and rewards. In libraries, the application of expectancy theory can help managers ensure that employees are motivated to perform at their best, by creating a positive work environment that rewards performance and fosters a culture of achievement. Here are some examples of how the expectancy theory can be applied in libraries:

1.	Setting Clear Goals: The expectancy theory suggests that employees are motivated when they have clear goals and objectives to work towards. In libraries, this could involve setting clear targets for book circulation, program attendance, or customer satisfaction scores, and communicating these goals to employees. 2.	Providing Training and Resources: The expectancy theory suggests that employees are motivated when they have the necessary skills and resources to achieve their goals. In libraries, this could involve providing training and resources to employees to help them improve their skills and knowledge, such as workshops on customer service, information literacy, or new technologies. 3.	Aligning Rewards with Performance: The expectancy theory suggests that employees are motivated when they perceive that their efforts will lead to better outcomes and rewards. In libraries, this could involve aligning rewards such as bonuses, promotions, or recognition with performance outcomes, such as achieving targets for book circulation or customer satisfaction scores. 4.	Providing Feedback and Support: The expectancy theory suggests that employees are motivated when they receive regular feedback on their performance and support in achieving their goals. In libraries, this could involve providing regular feedback on employee performance, coaching and training to improve skills and competencies, and resources to support employees in achieving their goals.

Overall, the expectancy theory can help libraries create a positive work environment that rewards performance and fosters a culture of achievement. By setting clear goals, providing training and resources, aligning rewards with performance, and providing feedback and support, libraries can improve employee motivation, job satisfaction, and organizational performance. This, in turn, can lead to better service to patrons, increased productivity, and improved outcomes for the library.

Summary Evaluating these theories against some of the existing research in the area of work life conflict allows future researchers to better understand when studies might get the results that they do. Theories help researchers test, validate and refine new theories as they emerge from new research. Not only that, but existing theories help define hypothesis for future studies. The theories discussed have been theories that have been relevant to much of the existing research in work life balance. As future research is done, more theories may be relevant or new theories may develop. However, these theories help researchers understand why workers are facing many of the challenges that they are currently facing in the areas of work life balance and work life conflict. Industrial and Organizational Psychology is meant to research and explain why humans act the way they do in the work setting. By isolating a certain issue or phenomenon such as work life balance, they can explore why this certain issue is dealt with the way it is, by both the workers and the organization. Not to mention new ways of better managing the issue can be developed. In order to fix an issue, you have to understand it deeply, such as why and how it occurred. This is the purpose of theory. Theory is interesting and inspiring and motivated. It makes researchers more inquisitive in new areas so that future research can be directed. This holds true with work life balance and work life conflict. Overall, it is imperative to note that these theories dont need to be applied separately but parts of each theory can be incorporated together to achieve organisational efficiency