User:Nicolevlad/sandbox

Final Draft
'''Please note: this is how I envision it on the final page. The small font in italics is what is currently on the page and the large font is what I have added. This would be added in the Sugar page, under 2. History. Antiquity would be 2.1 and Middle Ages would be 2.2.'''

Antiquity
''Sugar has been produced in the Indian subcontinent[3] since ancient times. It was not plentiful or cheap in early times and honey was more often used for sweetening in most parts of the world. Originally, people chewed raw sugarcane to extract its sweetness. Sugarcane was a native of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia.[4] Different species seem to have originated from different locations with Saccharum barberi originating in India and S. edule and S. officinarum coming from New Guinea.[4][5] One of the earliest historical references to sugarcane is in Chinese manuscripts dating back to 8th century BC that state that the use of sugarcane originated in India.[6]''

'' In the tradition of Indian medicine (āyurveda), the sugercane is known by the name Ikṣu and the sugarcane juice is known as Phāṇita. Its varieties, synonyms and charactericss are defined in nighaṇṭus such as the Bhāvaprakāśa (1.6.23, group of sugarcanes).[7] ''

 Sugar was found in Europe by the 1st century CE, but only as an imported medicine, and not as a food.[8][9] The Greek physician Pedanius Dioscorides in the 1st century CE described sugar in his medical treatise De Materia Medica,[10] and Pliny the Elder, a 1st-century CE Roman, described sugar in his Natural History: "Sugar is made in Arabia as well, but Indian sugar is better. It is a kind of honey found in cane, white as gum, and it crunches between the teeth. It comes in lumps the size of a hazelnut. Sugar is used only for medical purposes."[9] 

“Major empires – Greek, Roman, Islamic, Mongol, Byzantine, Ottoman and European – all absorbed foodstuffs and cuisines inherited from older empires, states and conquered peoples. […] Sugar thus became one of the unrecognized bounties of imperial conquest and power, seized and absorbed by conquers then carried to distant corners of the globe where it shaped new tastes and a demand for the pleasure it brought.”

Middle Ages
''Sugar remained relatively unimportant until the Indians discovered methods of turning sugarcane juice into granulated crystals that were easier to store and to transport.[11] Crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Imperial Guptas, around the 5th century CE.[11] In the local Indian language, these crystals were called khanda (Devanagari: खण्ड, Khaṇḍa), which is the source of the word candy.[12] Indian sailors, who carried clarified butter and sugar as supplies, introduced knowledge of sugar on the various trade routes they travelled.[11] Buddhist monks, as they travelled around, brought sugar crystallization methods to China.[13] During the reign of Harsha (r. 606–647) in North India, Indian envoys in Tang China taught methods of cultivating sugarcane after Emperor Taizong of Tang (r. 626–649) made known his interest in sugar. China then established its first sugarcane plantations in the seventh century.[14] Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 CE, to obtain technology for sugar refining.[15] In South Asia, the Middle East and China, sugar became a staple of cooking and desserts.''

Southeast Asia
Sugar was a principle ingredient in India as early as 260 BC, due to its importance and symbolism in Buddhism. A German scientist by the name of Karl Ritter believes that the sugar cane was only cultivated in Bengal until the fifth century. The importance of sugar in Buddhism is one of the reasons why both the religion and the ingredient travelled hand-in-hand. As Rachael Laudan says, “where Buddhism spread, so did sugarcane growing and refining.”

Sugar was a mainstay in Buddhist cuisine for both medicinal and religious purposes. Early Buddhism from 260 BCE – 800 CE valued asceticism and purification. Since sugar was made by extensive purification of the sugar cane, they believed it would give them the same ability. “Just as cane juice was refined and purified into sugar, so monks during meditation were refined by the ‘fire of wisdom.’” Medicinally, sugar was used to help with coughs, itches; to disguise the unappealing tastes of other medicinal herbs, and to provide a quick source of energy.

China
Once Buddhism began spreading from India to China, monks figured out how to bring the sugar cane and processing materials with them. Emperor Taizong sent an envoy to India in 647 who brought back six monks and two artisans to establish sugar manufacturing. Once Buddhism reached Japan, the monks realized that sugar cane would not grow well in the colder climate. “Sugar was imported from China at great expense and in tiny quantities”. Sugar was central to Buddhist religion and cuisine, and spread throughout Asia for its praise, even when it was used in small quantities.

Not only was sugar medicinal, but it was also special and reserved for specific spiritual occasions. During Buddhist fasting days, sugar water was allowed to be consumed by monks and nuns. “Sugar was also used in Chinese public rituals such as the ‘Bathing of the Buddha.’” How much sugar was used or known depended on the emperor and the dynasty. Besides monks, only aristocrats would have tasted or heard of cane sugar and it took years for it to become familiar in urban centers.

Middle East
Eventually sugar reached the Middle East and became intertwined with Islam. The Middle Eastern climate was also not great for sugar cane growth, yet the spice became so important that the “Islamic rulers and their agronomists […] pulled off an agricultural revolution in the arid and often exhausted landscapes of the Islamic empires. […] By 1400 sugar was being grown in Egypt, Syria, Jordan, North Africa, Spain, and probably Ethiopia and Zanzibar.” Like with Buddhism, Islamic cuisine began including sugar in several recipes while the empire expanded West. “Wherever they went, the Arabs brought with them sugar, the product and the technology of its production; sugar, we are told, followed the Koran.”

As the very laborious production of sugar spread, the demand for it increased tremendously. Therefore, the manpower behind its production needed to increase. In Morocco and in many other sugar cane growing areas, slavery played a huge role in the growing, extracting, and purification of sugar.

Europe
'' Crusaders brought sugar home with them to Europe after their campaigns in the Holy Land, where they encountered caravans carrying "sweet salt". Early in the 12th century, Venice acquired some villages near Tyre and set up estates to produce sugar for export to Europe, where it supplemented honey, which had previously been the only available sweetener.[16] Crusade chronicler William of Tyre, writing in the late 12th century, described sugar as "very necessary for the use and health of mankind".[17] I n the 15th century, Venice was the chief sugar refining and distribution centre in Europe.[6] '' Sugar cane was also very necessary for the Crusaders during their long journeys and “saved Crusaders in times of starvation.”

Sugar cane quickly became the popular sweetener in Europe, taking preference over honey. It was more easily produced, transported, exchanged, and preserved. “The cultivation of sugar cane became an important industry in Sicily by the fifteenth century.” Sugar then became much more prevalent in southern Europe, while northern countries like England and Germany continued cooking with honey. In the first century, Sugar was relatively unknown, only to a few pharmaceutical specialists. By the fourteenth century, sugar was imported to Europe due to the Middle Eastern merchants. Then in the fifteenth century, “European householders seem almost to have become addicted to the flavor that sugar lent their foods.”

Not only was the flavor important, but also the medicinal properties which were regarded highly from the humoral theory. “Being warm in the first degree and moist in the second, made [sugar] one of the safest, most appropriate foodstuffs for a human being.” All pharmacists prescribed medicine with a basis of sugar, since it was appropriate for all humors, temperaments and ages according to the medicine of the time. “The quasi-universality of sugar in medicinal prescriptions, from syrups to electuaries to sick-dishes, reflected a growing predilection of the late-medieval aristocratic palate for sweetness generally in the daily fare.”

Article Outline
Sugar has historically been an important food item since Ancient Times affecting trade, cuisine, and religion throughout Eurasia. Sugar also impacted the Middle Ages tremendously, as there had been quite an advancement in its production and refinement.
 * Sugar in ancient roman civilisations
 * used as a preservation method (necessary for growing of population and transporting of food)
 * Sugar in early buddhism
 * Highly processed and refined sugarcane as a form of purity
 * diet based on a lot of sugar, which they went to great extents to attain
 * Sugar in early christianity
 * limited in the very beginning for avoiding bodily pleasures
 * Sugar in early Middle Ages
 * abundantly used
 * Sugar in late Middle Ages
 * In Islam: abandon molasses and refine the sugar refinement process, advanced sweets, quince paste, moving into Iberian peninsula and make membrillo.
 * Economic divide: peasants did not have access to expensive and rare sugar, but high class used it abundantly

Final topic and sources
I decided to edit the "Ancient and Medieval Times" of the sugar page. As I said below, there are many facts that go against what we have read and discussed in class, claiming that sugar was unimportant before the Modern Age. I plan to add information about sugar's role in the beginning of religious communities like Buddhist and Islamic, and its symbolism. Also, I plan to add more about the transition sugar made from being healthy to unhealthy into the Renaissance. I will also investigate whether or not the information and sources that are on the page are valid.

Initial bibliography:
 * 1) Rachel Laudan's article: "The Birth of the Modern Diet"
 * 2) Sydney Mintz "Sweetness and Power"
 * 3) "Medieval and Early Renaissance Medicine: An Introduction to knowledge and Practice." Nancy G. Siraisi
 * 4) Scully, Art of Cookery in the Middle Ages
 * 5) Rüdiger Schmitt, "Cooking in Ancient Iran" www.iranicaonline.org
 * 6) Wilkins et al., Food in Antiquity
 * 7) Mazumadar, Sugar and Society in China
 * 8) Sabban, "sucre candi"  "industrie sucrière" and "savoir-faire oublié"
 * 9) Kieschnick, Impact of Buddhism
 * 10) Daniels and Daniels, "Origin of the Sugarcane Roller Mill"
 * 11) Dunn, Sugar and Slaves
 * 12) Achaya, Indian Food
 * 1) Achaya, Indian Food

ect topics
sugar - the "ancient and medieval times" section under history is lacking and goes against what we have learned in class, claiming that sugar was mainly unimportant until the crusaders brought it back. So far in class, we have seen the great importance in sugar throughout many different regions and religions.

restaurant - add to the History section of this page, which has some good information but could have more, especially under France.

blancmange - add more about the history of it being savoury and the health factors that led to its creation. Maybe I could also research how it went from being savoury to sweet and a pretty worldly dessert.

humoral theory - although this is fairly complete, I could add the three principles of salt, sulphur and mercury.

fasting - this page focuses mainly on the different religious purposes of fasting, but maybe I could add a historical section to this, including different fast meals.

Article Evaluation
kefir
 * First, the article cites many facts with no citation. It does indicate that the citation is needed but it is confusing to read very specific statements surrounding kefir with no backing.
 * The article lacks any type of historical information on where kefir was first made/consumed.
 * The "Regional consumption" section could be better divided and probably has more possible regions that use the product.
 * Under Probiotics, the articles states that, "The significance of probiotic supplements remains unproven" and cites one opinion scientific paper and another article from 2012 that only claims more research is needed.

Article to edit
Urban agriculture - I will add a broader section about United States.

Wagyu - I plan on adding a couple paragraphs about Wagyu cow slaughter and whether or not they fall under the Humane Slaughter Act.