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= Tripartite Struggle =

The Tripartite Struggle, or Kannauj Triangle, was a major conflict in early Medieval India for control of Kannauj, then known as Kanyakubja. It was fought primarily by three dynasties, the Palas, Gurjara-Pratiharas and Rashtrakutas, between c. 784 CE and the mid-10th Century. Kannauj was at this time one of India's largest cities, and commanded control over a large section of the Ganga River Basin. The conflict began due to internal rivalries within Kannauj itself, making it a prime target for imperial expansion. Periods of Gurjara, Pala and Rashtrakuta rule followed each other in quick succession during the late 8th Century and early 9th Centuries, with a less chaotic period opening up from the mid-9th to mid-10th Centuries. The rivalries between the empires began to lose importance after this point, with all three facing revolts from their feudatories. In 1036, the Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty collapsed, and Kannauj returned to the rule of local kings.

Kannauj and the Ayudha Dynasty
Throughout the Classical Era, India had gradually shifted away from a fractured, post-Mauryan network of small states, to one of larger empires. Kannauj was the political centre of some of these later empires, mostly notably Harshavardhana's Pushyabhuti Dynasty (606-47 CE). During Harshavardhana's rule, Kannauj became India's largest and most prosperous city, as explained by the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang during his time in India. The city faded into obscurity after Harshavardhana's death, however, until the rule of Yashovarman (c. 725-50 CE). Yashovarman reaffirmed Kannauj's status as a great imperial city, but like Harsha was unable to install a long-lasting dynasty after his death. His successors were weak rulers, allowing a new Ayudha Dynasty to take power. It was this dynasty that was ruling Kannauj during the opening stages of the Tripartite Struggle.

Gauda and the Pala Dynasty
Gauda was an ancient region mentioned in several Sanskrit sources, but had only gained importance relatively recently. This was achieved under a king named Shashanka, who ruled until he was toppled by Harshavardhana and his allies in Kamarupa c. 625 CE. Although his kingdom was short-lived, he was successful in fostering the idea of a unified Bengali state and identity. This came in stark contrast to the following period, where dozens of local Rajas reasserted control in parts of Bengal, such as the Khadagas of Vanga. Finally c. 750 CE, the local princes held an election with the goal of reunifying Bengal. Gopala I was chosen as the new monarch, thus founding the Pala Dynasty.

Rajasthan and the Gurjara-Pratihara Dynasty
Unlike Bengal, Rajasthan had not yet played host to a major Indian dynasty. However, a cause for unity was emerging by the early 8th Century. A new wave expansion by the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I had already resulted in a fall of the powerful Chach of Aror in 713 CE, and Rajasthan was the next target. The exact origins of the Gurjara-Pratiharas is disputed, but it is clear that several clans had been brought together by Nagabhata I by c. 730 CE. He was successful in preventing any further gains for the Muslims in India, earning him great prestige and laying the foundations for Rajasthan's first powerful dynasty.

The Deccan and the Rashtrakuta Dynasty
The origin of the Rashtrakutas was notably different to their Pala and Gurjara contemporaries. The Rashtrakutas instigated a rebellion against the ruling Vatapi Chalukya dynasty. In earlier times this dynasty was a great world power, and was able to project its diplomatic influence both within and outside India. But by the mid-8th Century, the state had gone into decline. The Rashtrakutas were already powerful feudatories at this time, and in 753 CE defeated their Chalukya overlords under their first king, Dantidurga. The Rashtrakutas perhaps maintained the largest and best disciplined army of the three dynasties, and as such were already expanding their influence into smaller neighbouring states before the Tripartite Struggle began.

First Phase: Indrayudha and Chakrayudha
The conflict can be divided up into two phases. The first was a shorter, more violent period where control over Kannauj changed frequently. It was nominally a succession dispute between two members of the Ayudha Dynasty, Indrayudha and Chakrayudha, but quickly turned into a contest of power and prestige.

784: Invasion of Vatsaraja
The first Ayudha king of Kannauj, Vajrayudh, reigned until his death in 783 or 784 CE. His succession was disputed between two sons, Indrayudha and Chakrayudha. Indrayudha ultimately became king of Kannauj, but Chakrayudha remained alive and a constant threat. The dispute was now too severe to be ignored. The fourth Gurjara king, Vatsaraja, set out on an expedition to Kannauj with his army. He defeated Indrayudha, but allowed him to remain on throne as a feudatory. The second Pala ruler, Dharmapala found this intolerable, and promptly declared support for the rival claimant, Chakrayudha. The dispute had thus morphed from an internal one between Indrayudha and Chakrayudha, to an international one involving all of northern India. Vatsaraja took the initiative and moved against Dharmapala. The two armies met near Prayaga, where a largest battle took place. The battle resulted in a second victory for Vatsaraja, who captured the symbolically important white umbrellas of Dharmapala. This victory gave Vatsaraja unprecedented power in northern India and affirmed his supremacy as sovereign.

786: Intervention of Dhruva Dharavarsa
The fourth Rashtrakuta monarch, Dhruva Dharavarsha, had so far avoided open conflict in the north, but nonetheless followed the conflict very closely. He too had ambitions of becoming India's supreme ruler, and marched north into Malwa in Vatsaraja's absence. As he pressed farther into Gurjara territory, he eventually came into contact with Vatsaraja's army near the Ganga River, who he decisively defeated. The white umbrellas of the Palas were also captured by the Rashtrakutas. Vatsaraja was forced to retreated back to a shattered homeland, and Indrayudha switched his allegiance to the Rashtrakutas. Meanwhile, Dharmapala had regrouped and made a second attempt to install Chakrayudha on the throne. He was again defeated, losing two more white umbrellas in the process. Having defeated both the Gurjaras and Palas, Dhruva Dharavarsa became unquestionably the preeminent ruler of India, and remained so until his death.

793: Ascension of Chakrayudha
In 793 CE, Dhruva Dharavarsa died, by which time most of his troops had already withdrawn from the north. The Rashtrakutas then entered a civil war that would continue for the remainder for the century, effectively knocking them out of the contest. The Pala army was still in good condition at this point, despite two recent defeats, and Dharmapala made yet another attempt to install Chakrayudha as king. With support coming from neither of his former allies, Indrayudha was defeated by Dharmapala, who placed Chakrayudha on the throne as his feudatory.

795: Further Gurjara-Pala Confrontation
Around two years passed with Chakrayudha on the throne as Dharmapala's vassal, but in 795 CE the new Gurjara king, Nagabhatta II, made an attempt to bring Kannauj back under his control. Taking the Palas by surprise, he successfully captured Kannauj, but allowed Chakrayudha to remain as his vassal. Dharmapala had no choice but to again respond to the Gurjara threat. The two armies clashed near the city of Munger, with the Gurjaras claiming victory. Kannauj thus passed to the Gurjaras for the second time, demonstrating a remarkable and swift recovery from their recent defeat against the Rashtrakutas.

796: Return of the Rashtrakutas
By 796 CE. the civil war amongst the Rashtrakutas was coming to a close, with Govinda III emerging as the new monarch. Following in his father's footsteps, he too marched north, through Malwa, towards Kannauj. Reminiscent of events in the previous decade, the Gurjara army was again destroyed. Order and stability complete broke down in the Gurjara homeland, with many local chiefs asserting independence. Govinda III pressed on to the city itself, meeting no resistance from Chakrayudha, who submitted to Govinda. Dharmapala, seeing the destruction wrought upon the Gurjaras by Govinda, also submitted. This left the Rashtrakuta kings in a highly dominant position, ruling either directly or indirectly most of India.

802: Rebellion in the South
For several years, the Rashtrakutas under Govinda III remained in control of this vast empire, possessing a seemingly invincible army that had yet to to be defeated. This changed in 802 CE, when the Chalukyas of Vengi under Vishnuvardhana IV, who had been subdued by Govinda during the civil war, rebelled. Govinda was forced to withdraw from the north, as the rebellion began to spread to the other major vassal states in the south, notably including the Gangas, Pallavas. Although the initial rebellion in Vengi was quelled quickly, it took around two years to pacify the other states, creating another power vacuum in Kannauj. Meanwhile, Dharmapala's strategy of submitting to Govinda seemed to be paying off. Unlike the Gurjaras who had now suffered two devastating defeats, the Pala state remained internally strong, and surprisingly emerged as the beneficiary of the frequent warfare for Kannauj. Thus Chakrayudha gravitated towards Dharmapala once more after Govindia's withdrawal, leaving much of northern India under Dharmapala's rule.

812: Nagabhatta II's invasion
This second period of Pala control came to be the longest period of peace so far, lasting about 10 years. Dharmapala died around 812 CE, bringing the future the Kannauj into question. Nagabhatta II took advantage of the situation and reestablished control over Kannauj. The new Pala ruler, Devapala, viewed his father's strategy of open military confrontation as a mistake, and instead focused on strengthening the state internally. Meanwhile, the Rashtrakutas, now under the rule Amoghavarsa, were facing more rebellions from the Chalukyas of Vengi and several other vassals, shifting Rashtrakuta foreign policy away from Kannauj and towards the south. With both the Palas and Rashtrakutas either unwilling or unable to challenge Nagabhatta, the Gurjara hold over Kannauj became much tighter. Chakrayudha was also deposed around this time, as Kannauj was made the capital of the empire.

Second Phase: War of Attrition
The second phase of the war saw a reduced level of fighting, with Kannauj only changing hands every few decades. Nonetheless, the conflict continued to occupy the attention of all three empires. In this phase, the general strategy shifted towards one of exploiting the weakness of other empires. As Chakrayudha had been deposed by this point, Kannauj was usually ruled by governors directly answerable to their respective kings. It also saw a rise in importance of vassal states, who became essential all three empires' strategy.

833: Pala Domination
Nagabhatta II's successes earlier in the century proved to be long lasting, and paved the way for an unprecedented two-decade long peace. During this time he continued to keep Arab expansion in check in the west, and kept a firm grip over the empire. He eventually died in 833 CE, leaving the empire to Ramabhadra. Ramabhadra was a poor administrator, and the Gurjara empire quickly fell apart under his rule. In the two-decade period of Gurjara dominance, Devapala had been busy strengthening the Pala state, chiefly by establishing vassal status over neighbouring kingdoms, such as Kamarupa. By 833 CE, he was able to openly challenge the collapsing Gurjaras for Kannauj, and invaded. This campaign was completely successful, and northern India once again fell under Pala domination.