User:Ornithoptera/sandbox3


 * Main Sandbox (General article ideas)
 * Sandbox 1 (Biographical articles)
 * Sandbox 2 (Biology articles)
 * Sandbox 3 (Archive)

=Tulbaghia acutiloba=

Description
Tulbaghia acutiloba is one of 22 members of the genus Tulbaghia found in tropical and southern Africa. The plant is a small, clump-forming, bulbous perennial that ranges from 15-45 cm in height. The leaves are narrow and grass-like, they are 50-450 mm in length, and 3-8 mm in width. The rhizome of the plant can grow to 3 cm in diameter. When the plant is touched, a garlicky scent is emanated, the leaves of the plant are edible.

The flowers are small, trumpet-shaped, around 8x4 mm in size, and green, white, and orange-brown in colour. Khaki colored flowers are surrounded by green, recurved tepals, and a fleshy orange to reddish-brown ring, with an umbel of around 2 to 6 flowers. The flowers are sweet in scent, and the scent is particularly noticeable during the evening. The plant flowers throughout the year, mainly between the months of August to November, which is late winter to early summer in Southern Africa. The plant can flower multiple times in a single season.

Range
Tulbaghia acutiloba is found in the countries of Botswana, Eswatini, Lesotho, and the eastern portions of South Africa. In South Africa, it is found in the provinces of Eastern Cape, Free State, Gauteng, KwaZulu-Natal, Limpopo, Mpumalanga, and North West.

Habitat
The preferred habitat of Tulbaghia acutiloba is dry, rocky, grasslands of an elevation up to 1800 m.

Etymology
The generic epiphet is derived from Ryk Tulbagh, the governor of the Cape of Good Hope. Tulbagh's extensive correspondences with Carl Linnaeus included sending him 200 plant specimens, among which was a specimen of Tulbaghia acutiloba sent in 1769 which led to its description. The specific epiphet denotes the plant's pointed lobes.

It is commonly known as "Wild Garlic" in the English language. It is also known locally as "Wildeknoffel" in Afrikaans, "isihihi" in the Xhosa language, "ishaladi lezinyoka" in the Zulu language, and "motsuntsunyane" or "sefothafotha" in the Southern Sotho language.

Taxonomy
Tulbaghia acutiloba was first described in 1854 by William Henry Harvey. Formerly placed in the family Alliaceae, the family was merged into the larger family Amaryllidaceae as per the APG IV system in 2016.

Distribution
There are three sites that the Bulloak Jewel is found in, brought down to two. The two extant sites are in Leyburn and Bendidee State Forest. Mount Emlyn, the location of the pastoral property of one of the original discoverers, Jack Macqueen, had its population extirpated due to subsequent extensive land clearing that had occurred. The total area of occupancy for the Bulloak Jewel is 10 km2 and is severely fragmented, with the remaining area's habitat declining in quality.

The Bulloak Jewel is restricted to the southern Darling Downs in southeastern Queensland. In particular, the Brigalow Belt South Interim Biogeographic Regionalization for Australia (IBRA) in low rainfall areas of below 600 mm.

The Ellangowan Nature Refuge, near Leyburn, Queensland, is the primary centre of the Bulloak Jewel's population.

Habitat
The Bulloak Jewel inhabits old-grown bulloak woodland consisting of the larval host tree of Allocasuarina luehmannii. It also inhabits mixed bulloak woodland of Angophora leiocarpa, Eucalyptus, and Callitris. The butterfly only prefers mature growth A. luehmannii, young trees and regrowth are not inhabited altogether.

Conservation
Andrew Stafford writing for The Guardian Australia dubbed the Bulloak Jewel as "arguably Australia’s rarest butterfly", with the exception of the Australian fritillary (Argynnis hyperbius inconstans), which is believed to be extinct. Ann Jones writing for ABC Australia described it as "one of the rarest butterflies in the world."

Under the provisions of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC Act), the Bulloak Jewel is listed as "Critically Endangered" as of 7 September 2023. In the state of Queensland it is listed as "Critically Endangered" under the provisions of Nature Conservation (Animals) Regulation 2020 as of December 2023. It is listed as "CR" under the provisions of Queensland's Nature Conservation Act 1992. It is one of 6 butterflies listed under the provisions of the EPBC Act.

Among the primary threats for the Bulloak Jewel are habitat degradation, fire, and insect collectors. It was estimated to have a 37 percentage chance of extinction by 2040. It was noted by Andrew Stafford for The Guardian Australia that "a hot fire [in its native range] would be disastrous." Braby et al. named habitat degradation in the forms of increased drought and fire frequency, invasive weeds, land clearing (for grazing purposes or expansion of roadways and tracks), removal of dead and fallen trees which support ant trails (for use as firewood), rubbish dumping, and selective removal of mature A. luehmannii trees (to be processed into fence posts, firewood, turnery).

Taxonomy
The Bulloak Jewel was first brought to scientific attention when Dr. John Kerr and Jack Macqueen, a local farmer, captured specimens near Leyburn, Queensland. It was first described as Hypochrysops piceata in John F. R. Kerr, Jack Macqueen, and Don P. Sands' 1969  A new species of Hypochrysops (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) from south Queensland published in the Journal of the Australian Entomological Society. In Dunn and Dunn's 1991 Review of Australian Butterflies: distribution, life history and taxonomy, it was moved to Hypochrysops piceatus which remains the current name.

The common name is derived from the butterfly's underwing patterns with crimson bands marked with black and iridescent turquoise, resembling that of a jewel. Don Sands referred to its naming by stating that "it lives on the bulloak but it looks like a jewel." It is also known by the common names of Darling Downs jewel, bulloak jewel butterfly, bull-oak jewel, and piceatus jewel butterfly.

Life history
The Bulloak Jewel butterfly prefers Allocasuarina luehmannii trees ranging between an estimated 100 to 200 years old. The larvae are monophagous, feeding only on the leaves of A. luehmannii, and they are attended to by the ant Anonychomyrma inclinata.

Taxonomy
Scybalium fungiforme is a poorly known plant in the family Balanophoraceae. It is one of seven species of its family found in Brazil, and one of two members of its genus found there.

It is commonly known by the name “cogumelo-de-caboclo” in Brazil. Other names include Cogumelo-de-sangue, Esponja-de-raiz, and Fel-da-terra.

Distribution
The distribution of Scybalium fungiforme is restricted to Atlantic forests in the Central-West and Southeast of Brazil, more so in forests below 1400 m sea level.

Conservation
In a 2008 review of plants of Brazil in the Lista de Ameaça de Flora e Fauna do Estado de Minas Gerais it was listed as "vulnerable".

Pollination
It was theorized by Professor Patrícia Morellato of the São Paulo State University in the 1990s that the flowers of Scybalium fungiforme were pollinated by possums. This was because of the fact that the flowers were covered by sturdy bracts, making it difficult for animals to be able to pollinate the flowers effectively. Opossums, with opposable thumbs, were potentially able to pollinate the flowers because of their dexterity. This was noted alongside the floral construction resembling that of Australian and South African members of the family Proteaceae which are associated with pollination by non-flying nocturnal mammals. Traits including dull coloration of the flowers, nocturnal anthesis paired with copious nectar production, and geoflory (flowering underground). Previous evidence of opossums with nectar on their snouts were unable to be recognized as evidence for the theory as there was no record of direct pollination by the opossums. Doctor Felipe Amorim would hypothesize later on that because of the flower's morphology, it would potentially be pollinated by a non-flying animal. Anorim's students had hypothesized the plant's pollination by rodents.

Observations in the Serra do Japi Biological Reserve in May of 2019 confirmed Morellato's theory. Cameras that were placed on the site observed opossums (Didelphis aurita) removing the plant's bracts before inserting their faces into the flowers in order to consume its nectar. The montane grass mouse (Akodon montensis) was also recorded visiting S. fungiforme inflorescences.

Scybalium fungiforme unique pollination syndrome entails possums, the plant's primary pollinator, who are uniquely capable of doing so, peeling the plants' bracts back in order to drink the plant's nectar. Secondary pollinators, such as bees (Apis mellifera, Trigona spinipes), wasps (Agelaia angulata), and hummingbirds (Thalurania glaucopis) , would then drink the exposed flowers' nectar. While the plant's morphology is suited for ground-dwelling predators, the discovery of hummingbird pollinators for the plant were surprising to researchers.

Description
Lapeirousia oreogena is a tuberous geophyte in the Iris family, Iridaceae. It belongs to the subgenus Lapeirousia within the genus Lapeirousia. The plant grows out of a corm and lacks a stem, it is a perennial that reaches heights of 10 cm. It is described as a "striking species" by the Pacific Bulb Society, with linear to sword shaped outer leaves and undulated inner leaves. The leaves are described as being lanceolate in shape, ribbed, and tufted.

The flowers are actinomorphic, being star-shaped, rather than the two-lipped flowers that are common for the cabong genus Lapeirousia. They are borne on an inflorescence at ground level, in the shape of a spiralling spike on slender, undulating bracts that are green in colour. Flowers per plant vary between year to year, in vigourous plants, they can have five spikes with up to 20 flowers per spike. They are violet in color, with the tepal bases having black to dark purple blotches in an inner ring, with cream colored markings that are shaped resembling isosceles triangles or arrowheads that point inwards. The flowers are 2 cm in diameter. The flowers have six tepals which are slightly obovate in shape, with the upper parts rounded and slightly curving inwards. There are small attenuating points at the tepal tips.

Due to the actinomorphic nature of the flower, the stamens and style are symmetrically disposed. There are three stamens which stand erect at the centre of the flower. The anthers are oblong in shape, and are blue-purple in colour. The style has three branches, the thinner-style branches are slightly longer than the rest. The filaments are a pale-bluish in colour. L. oreogena is known to be able to set seed in greenhouses where insects were excluded.

The flowers of L. oreogena are pollinated by a single species of Nemestrinid fly in the genus Prosoeca. Flowering occurs in late winter and early spring, from August to September.

Distribution
Lapeirousia oreogena has a fairly restricted distribution. It is found in clay soils in the Northwestern Cape region of South Africa. Namely the Calvinia District of Western Cape Province, to the Bokkeveld Plateau and the western Karoo, and Nieuwoudtville.

Habitat
Lapeirousia oreogena inhabits renosterveld on clay flats.

Conservation
Lapeirousia oreogena is not currently considered to be threatened. In a 2005 review of South African Flora, D. Raimondo and J.E. Victor ranked Lapeirousia oreogena as "least-concern". This is the current designation of L. oreogena as recognized by the South African National Biodiversity Institute's Red List of South African Plants. It was previously assessed as "rare" in a 1996 review by C. Hilton-Taylor for the "Red data list of southern African plants". According to a 2024 assessment by S.P. Bachman et al., it was described as "confident" to be threatened in the future.

Etymology
The generic epiphet for the genus Lapeirousia is derived from Philippe-Isidore Picot de Lapeyrouse. The specific epiphet, oreogena, means "born of mountains."

The English language name for the plant is "cushion cabong", in Afrikaans its name is perskussing, which means "purple cushion." It is also known as Purple laps or Bluesy in English. The Afrikaans name perskussing is shared with the related Babiana praemorsa.

Early life and career
Store-Jakobsen was born in 1944 in the village of Karlebotn and was raised in the village of Vesterelv (Nesseby).

During the late 1970s and early 1980s, amid the Alta controversy, Store-Jakobsen served in a leadership position for the Sámi rights movement, challenging the development of a hydroelectric plant, the Alta Hydroelectric Power Station, by the Norwegian government on the Altaelva. He served as the spokesman for the Sami who were undergoing a hunger strike at the Storting to oppose the development, citing the dam's subsequent threat to flood the Sámi community of Masi, and as an assertion of self-determination on their pastoral lands. Store-Jakobsen opposed the development on the grounds that individuals in the reindeer husbandry sector were opposed to the development, and the importance in protecting the nature in the area. As an activist, he was referred to with the nickname Bihttoš Bierna (Rebel Bjarne). Amid the confrontation, Store-Jakobsen stated that he was contacted by several European terrorist organizations, whose assistance he turned down.

A trained journalist, Store-Jakobsen worked in the film and television production industries for 15 years, working as a journalist and editor. In the 1980s, Store-Jakobsen worked for the newspaper Sámi Áigi in Karasjok. In 2003, he was working as the head of the Sami editorial department for Sveriges Television in Kiruna.

Political career
From 2005 to 2009, Store-Jakobsen represented the Midt-Troms constituency as a member of the Labour Party. During his time in the Sami parliament, he served as a member for the business and culture committee.

In 2008, Store-Jakobsen was appointed by the Sámi Parliament of Norway as the representative of the Sami people of Norway at the Working Group of Indigenous Peoples in the Barents Euro-Arctic Council. He was appointed for a second time in 2010, continuing to represent the Sami people of Norway. As part of BEAR, Store-Jakobsen led the "Vyngy syo" (Voice of the Tundra) project, aimed at organizing Nenets language broadcasting in the Nenets Autonomous Okrug. In his capacity as leader for the working group, he was critical of Russian government programs targeting Indigenous people's relationship with alcohol and the failure to provide alternative employment for communities. He called for the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs to provide financial support and prevent the bankruptcy of Kola Sámi Radio.

In June 2011, Store-Jakobsen was removed from his post of advisor to the President of the Sámi Parliament of Norway. Incumbent President Egil Olli cited the need for renewal in the post, stating that the then 67 year old man was too old for the position, while Store-Jakobsen cited internal power struggles as the reason for his ouster.

On 22 March 2015, He was chosen as the Sámi People's Party's (SfP) mayoral candidate for the community of Nesseby. During his run, he called for increased transparency for the mayor's office, as well as improving infrastructure for the growing fishing industry in the municipality. He was subsequently elected to the municipal council, as one of three SfP representatives. On 5 December, 2015, Store-Jakobsen was elected leader of the SfP. He ran for the party in the 2021 Norwegian Sámi parliamentary election for the SfP as the first ranked candidate for the Eastern (Østre) constituency.

Views
Store-Jakobsen supports the establishment of a truth and reconciliation commission for the whole of Sápmi with regards to Sami children forced to attend schools that were distant from their communities. He is critical of the Sámi Parliament of Norway's effectiveness, expressing his dissatisfaction with its weakness and lack of sway within society. Store-Jakobsen described the Finnmark Estate as a quasi-solution to the ongoing issues and did not work for Sami rights. He believed that the Norwegian government and the Sámi parliament should work harder to rectify racist perceptions through ensuring correct information is presented in primary school.

As leader of the SfP, Store-Jakobsen was critical of Sami Parliamentary President Aili Keskitalo's decision to form a coalition with the Centre Party, citing the NSR's stance on forming coalitions with solely Sámi political parties, criticizing Keskitalo's reluctance to work with his party. Keskitalo cited the SfP's demands as being difficult to meet as reason for her reluctance to form a coalition with the party. During his run for Nesseby mayor Store-Jakobsen expressed willingness to accept refugees on humanitarian grounds. He was critical of Nesseby mayor Knut Store's decision to reject the acceptance of asylum seekers to the municipality, labelling his rejection in accordance with the policies of the Progress Party.

Personal life
Store-Jakobsen currently lives in Nesseby, Finnmark.

Store-Jakobsen is the father of Norwegian-Canadian filmmaker Elle-Máijá Tailfeathers. He is the subject of her 2014 film Bihttoš (Rebel). The film, narrated by Tailfeathers, details Store-Jakobsen meeting his future wife Esther Tailfeathers at the 1981 World Council of Indigenous Peoples assembly in Australia. His subsequent struggles with depression, his suicide attempt, as well as his reconnection with his daughter and his experiences at the Sàmi boarding school system.

Distribution
The wampum tuskshell is found on the Eastern Pacific. It is distributed from Alaska, Canada, down to California and Mexico. The maximum latitude for 54.31 degrees, and the maximum longitude is -130.88 degrees. The minimum latitude is 52.0978 degrees, and the minimum longitude is -132.66 degrees.

It is a benthic organism that occurs in depths of 2-152 m. It tolerates temperatures between 6.893-9.967 C. The concentration of dissolved oxygen in the water ranges from 4.37-6.534 ml/L. The concentration of dissolved nitrate in the water ranges from 7.622-20.476 µmol/l. The saturation of oxygen in the water ranges from 62.799-100.512 percent. Water phosphate concentration ranges from 0.963-2.1 μmol/l. The salinity that the wampum tuskshell is found in ranges from 31.942-32.853 psu. The water silicate concentration ranges from 14.539-51.234 µmol/l.

Life history
As a Scaphopod, the wampum tuskshell is gonochoric, meaning each individual is either male or female. It reproduces sexually. Fertilization occurs within the mantle cavity of the organism.

The eggs hatch into free-swimming lecithotrophic trochophore larvae. This is then succeeded by shelled veligers, planktonic larvae.

Adults have a semi-infaunal lifestyle, living their lives partially buried in the sediment. They are slow-moving and feed on particulate organic matter as a deposit feeder.

Description
The wampum tuskshell a narrow, tubular shell. The shell consists of aragonite. It has a length of 3.6 cm. Adults are blind.

Taxonomy
The wampum tuskshell was first described by Thomas Nuttall in volume 3 of Thesaurus Conchyliorum by George Brettingham Sowerby II as Dentalium pretiosum. It was moved to the genus Antalis in 2021 by Austin Hendy in A review of the Quaternary Mollusca of the Palos Verdes Peninsula.

Conservation
The wampum tuskshell is currently listed as "Not evaluated" by the IUCN Red List, CITES, and Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS).

Name
Savungaz used the Han name Li Pinhan prior to exclusively using her Bunun name. Her Bunun language name Savungaz Valincinan is transliterated as 撒丰安．瓦林及那 using Chinese characters. Because of the rendering of her name with Chinese characters, she is often erroneously referred to as "Miss Sa" 撒小姐, Savungaz argues that the usage of Chinese characters fails to correctly express the popular pronunciation of the traditional names of Indigenous Taiwanese people, with the meaning of Chinese characters leading to the misuse and misunderstanding of Indigenous peoples' names. According to Bunun naming systems, the child takes the name of the family elder, which in her case was her grandmother.

To protest the Taiwanese government's mandatory usage of Chinese characters for Indigenous Taiwanese names, Savungaz changed her legal name to the 34-character Lee I want to exclusively list my tribal name, my Bunun tribal name is Savungaz Valincinan (李我要單列族名我的布農族名字是Savungaz Valincinan).

Career
Savungaz runs a cafe in the city of Taipei called Lumaq, translating to "home" in the Bunun language.

She served as the host of the fourth season of the Taiwan Indigenous Television program Lima Help (Lima幫幫忙), alongside American actor Justin Caleb Cooper (賈斯汀).

Activism
Savungaz is a member of the Indigenous Youth Front (原住民族青年陣線) group and served as its general convener. She formerly served as the secretary-general of the Association for Taiwan Indigenous Peoples' Policies (ATIPP) (台灣原住民族政策協會). Having been an activist for a decade, Savungaz was active in movements such as the protests against the construction of the Low-Level Radioactive Waste Storage Site on Orchid Island, Indigenous name rectification movement, and the protests calling for the pardoning of Indigenous hunter Tama Talum.

For her participation in the 411 siege of the Zhongzheng First Precinct, Taipei City Police Department, Savungaz was charged with 40 days in prison, with a suspended sentence of two years, in addition to protective control and 40 hours of legal education. The final charge was added onto her sentence when Savungaz laughed during court proceedings which the presiding judge deemed was a lack of respect for court order.

She stood in solidarity with protesters during the 2020 Black Lives Matter protests in Taiwan, tying the challenges faced by African-Americans in the United States with the discrimination faced by Indigenous Taiwanese and pushing for basic rights to be upheld.

Savungaz was among the 2021 activists who called on local governments to recognize the exclusive writing of Indigenous Taiwanese names in Latin script. Activists argued that the script better adhered to the pronunciation and served as a method for the preservation of Indigenous Taiwanese languages. The Ministry of the Interior rejected the petition on the grounds that Taiwanese people would be unable to read the names properly.

Political career
Savungaz ran in the Highland Aborigine Constituency in the Legislative Yuan ahead of the 2024 Taiwanese legislative election as an independent candidate with a three-member team. Savungaz ran on the platform "Land, name rectification, self-regulation" (土地、正名、自治), a slogan that was used prominently in previous campaigns regarding Indigenous Taiwanese rights. Savungaz was critical of the Council of Indigenous Peoples' role as what she described as a conduit for the Democratic Progressive Party led government rather than as a genuine advocate for Indigenous peoples. She supported the Siraya people's campaign for official recognition by the Taiwanese government. Being 36 at the time of the election, she was the youngest candidate running for the position, with all her other competitors being above fifty years of age.

Savungaz campaigned for the right for Indigenous Taiwanese people to exclusively list their names in their respective languages on government issued IDs. In October 2023, she called for the passage of anti-discrimination legislation, citing discrimination caused by perceptions of Indigenous Taiwanese people as alcoholic, lazy, lascivious, as well as having received unfair benefits as a result of affirmative action and governmental aid. Savungaz called for reforms towards the Taiwanese education system as a means to address anti-Indigenous discrimination, as well as prohibitions on the use of racist language on social media following racially-motivated harassment targeted towards her on social media.

Savungaz called for the official delineation of traditional territory, the ancestral lands traditionally inhabited and utilized by Indigenous peoples, as well as the self-regulation of said tradtional territories. She campaigned on the improvement of rights regarding hunting and land.

Personal life
Savungaz was born to a Han Chinese father and a mother from the Bunun tribe of Indigenous Taiwanese people. She was raised in the city of Taipei and embraced her Bunun heritage later in life, returning to the tribe's homeland during holidays with her mother. Growing up, she faced anti-Indigenous discrimination from authority figures and her peers.

Savungaz primarily used her Han Chinese name until high school, when she stopped partly to access welfare benefits for Indigenous students during a time when her family was struggling with financial issues. Additionally, she changed her name to reflect her maternal Bunun ancestry starting in university. Savungaz cited the Taiwanese education system's lack of inclusion of Indigenous topics over a goal of producing model Han Chinese students which led to a lack of Indigenous perspectives in her education as she was growing up. The same was considered for Savungaz's brothers, but her father's parents threatened to disown the family if the sons identified as Bunun tribesmen rather than as Han Chinese.

Early life
Grant was prematurely born September 1, 1936, to a Chinese father, Hong Tim Hing, and a Musqueam matriarch, Agnes Grant, on a hop field in Agassiz, British Columbia. Grant was the second of four children born to the couple, alongside Gordon Grant, Helen Callbreath and Howard E. Grant.

Hong Tim Hing was from Sei Moon, a village in Zhongshan, Guangdong Province. He immigrated in 1920 and was part of a group of Chinese migrants who had farmed on the Lin On Farm on Musqueam Reserve 2. The farm was owned by Agnes' father, Seymour Grant. As a child, Grant seldom saw his father as a result of the provisions of the Indian Act, which had stipulated that non-Indigenous peoples were unable to cohabit on reserve lands. Grant was raised with help from his grandparents and the Musqueam community.

Grant was considered by the Canadian government as a Chinese citizen due to his ancestry, despite little connections with his father. Because of his Chinese ancestry, Grant was excluded from attendance within the Canadian Indian residential school system. Despite Grant's mixed ancestry, the people of the Musqueam reserve treated the Grant children as fully Musqueam. Agnes Grant, according to her children, was one of the few remaining speakers of the hən̓q̓əmin̓əm̓ language, and passed on her oral history onto Grant. As a child, Grant would attend the potlatch and participate in games of slahal. He would graduate from high school in 1955.

Career
Grant worked as a longshore industry heavy duty mechanic and auto machinist for four decades prior to his retirement. Following his retirement, Grant enrolled into the First Nations Language Program in the University of British Columbia and became an educator and an elder within the Musqueam community. Grant works as a language and culture consultant within the Musqueam community. Serving as Musqueam's manager of the language department, Grant has worked towards advancing Indigenous reconciliation within the city of Vancouver.

Grant has led initiatives to rename various landmarks within the city. This includes a 2018 incorporation of Musqueam-language names to street signs on the University of British Columbia grounds. In 2022, Grant was consulted in the renaming of Vancouver's Trutch Street, named after Lieutenant Governor Joseph Trutch, to Musqueamview Street (šxʷməθkʷəy̓əmasəm). Grant was additionally consulted in the renaming of Sir Matthew Begbie Elementary School, named after Matthew Baillie Begbie, to wək̓ʷan̓əs tə syaqʷəm.

Work within the University of British Columbia
Grant has served as the Elder-in-Residence for the University of British Columbia's First Nations House of Learning since 2001. In his duties as Elder-in-Residence, Grant serves as an ambassador for Musqueam, as well as an elder figure for Indigenous students looking for a home away from home. Grant additionally serves as an adjunct professor within UBC's Institute of Critical Indigenous Studies' Musqueam Language and Culture Program, where he teaches courses on the hən̓q̓əmin̓əm̓ language.

Grant has served on the First Nations education standing committee, the UBC president's advisory committee on Aboriginal issues, and the Musqueam UBC Development committee.

Personal life
Grant's great-great-great grandfather was Chief Joe Capilano.

In film
Grant was profiled as part of the Chinese Canadian Stories project by the University of British Columbia.

Grant's early life was profiled in the film All Our Father's Relations, which documented the Grant siblings retracing their father's journey from Guangdong to Musqueam and highlighting the historical ties between Vancouver's Chinese Canadian community and the Musqueam.

Early life and education
Cote was born August 2, 1950 on the Cote First Nation, Saskatchewan, where she was raised. She was one of four children of John F. and Madelaine M. Cote. She grew up surrounded by Saulteaux culture and spoke the Saulteaux language when she grew up, until she began attending the Canadian Indian residential school system. Cote attended the Cote Day School and then the Fort Pelly Residential School (St. Philip's Residential School), where she had attended grades one through eight. Cote would then attend Kamsack Junior High School for grade 9, and then attend the Qu'Appelle Indian Residential School (Lebret Indian Residential School) for grade 10. She would finish her final two years through a vocational upgrading program by the Cote First Nation.

Cote acquired a Bachelor of Education at Brandon University in 1980. During her time at Brandon University, she would attend Saulteaux language courses and worked as a language lab assistant and tutor. In 1990, Cote graduated from the Saskatchewan Indian Federated College with a degree in linguistics with distinction. She was one of the first three to do so, alongside Solomon Ratt and Billy-Joe Laboucan.

Career
In 1968, Cote-Lerat began working with the Pelly Indian Agency office at the age of seventeen. From 1971 to 1978, Cote would work as a secretary and accountant for the Cote Band.

Cote-Lerat was the first person in the province of Saskatchewan to teach an First Nations language in a public school. In 1979, Cote-Lerat developed Saulteaux language curriculum guides during her time within the Indian Language Program at the Saskatchewan Indian Cultural College (now the Saskatchewan Indigenous Cultural Centre). Cote-Lerat would work for the SICC as a sessional lecturer from 1982-1984. She went on to teach at the Brandon University and at the Kamsack Junior High School (now Kamsack Comprehensive Institute) in 1980, before moving on to teaching at the First Nations University of Canada. Cote would be a member of the FNUniv faculty from 1980 until her retirement in 2010.

Cote-Lerat published her first book, Nahkawewin Saulteaux (Ojibway Dialect of the Plains) in 1984. Throughout her career she has published 20 books regarding Saulteaux language and culture. Her works Nahkawewin and Saulteaux Verb Book primarily concern Saulteaux semantic and morphological structure. Cote has published 16 children's books for her Saulteaux Talking Books series. She has also participated in the translation of four stories for CD-ROMs by Pebble Beach Interactive Fiction Inc. for Saskatchewan Education. A linguist, Cote has presented within several conferences and workshops, including during the 33rd Annual Algonquian Conference on the Semantic and Morphological Structure of Saulteaux Conditional Sentences and Relative Clauses (2001).

Personal life
Cote-Lerat's parents aided her in beginning to preserve the Saulteaux language. Cote-Lerat would eventually mentored her niece, Lynn Cote, to continue her work in preserving the language. Cote strongly believed in the importance of preserving First Nations languages and had recorded 17 elders for the purposes of transcribing and translating as many narrative categories as possible.

While attending the Lebret Residential School, Cote would meet her first husband, Ivan Cote, of whom she would have three sons and a daughter with. Cote-Lerat was engaged to Andy Pascal and the couple planned to wed when the COVID-19 pandemic subsided. Cote-Lerat's death was announced on Facebook on March 31, 2021. She was buried in the Cote First Nation.

Bibliography: List of works

 * 1982: Nahkawētā : a Saulteaux language course
 * 1985: Nahkawēwin Saulteaux : Ojibway dialect of the plains
 * 1985: Nihso mahkwak
 * 1985: Saulteaux Verb Book
 * 1987: Conditional Sentences in Cree and Saulteaux
 * 2008: Ānı̄n ēntōtamān kikis̆ēp ISBN 9781551655109
 * 2011: Nenapohs Legends ISBN 9780889772199
 * 2019: posâkanacîweyiniwak : nitaskînân = The Touchwood Hills People : Our Land
 * 2021: Mācī-Anihšināpēmowin / Beginning Saulteaux ISBN 9780889777514
 * Nahkawewin Workbook, a Saulteaux Syllabics book
 * Nahkawewin
 * Saulteaux Talking Books series
 * Saulteaux Dictionary
 * Anihsinape-Apinoci Nakamowinan: Children's Saulteaux Songs and Nursery Rhymes

Early life
Nungak was born in the town of Saputiligait, Nunavik, Quebec, a small village south of Puvirnituq on April 23, 1951. The location was listed as "Kenoruk's camp" by the Anglican priest who had recorded his birthplace, Nungak musing that it was likely due to the inability for the reverend to spell the location's name correctly. Nungak's mother was biracial, having been born to an Inuit mother and a Scottish father, Nungak never met his maternal grandfather. He was one of seven children, alongside Talasia, Poasie, Harry, Aliva, Alasie, and Joanasie. Nungak's name at birth was listed as Jabedee Noongoak, later in life, he had to have a lawyer certify that the two names belonged to the same person.

The "Eskimo Experiment"
Until he was 12 years old, Nungak attended day school at the Povungnituk Federal Day School. When Nungak was 12 years old, on August 14, 1963, he was taken as a part of what was dubbed the "Eskimo Experiment" by the Government of Canada. He, along with with two other children, Peter Ittinuar and Eric Tagoona, to finish high school in the south of Canada. The three children, chosen due to their high test scores, were taken from their homes without their families' consent and housed with middle class families in the city of Ottawa. Nungak as part of the experiment, attended three schools: Ottawa's Parkway Public School, J.H. Putman Public School, and Laurentian High School. Nungak, alongside Ittinuar and Tagoona, excelled at physical sports such as judo and swimming. The three appeared on the cover of the 1964 edition of Judo World magazine. Nungak, reflecting on his experiences, described having "nothing bad to say about anybody during that period." The ramifications would come due to Nungak's isolation from his community, Nungak was not around for the birth of his youngest sister, nor for the death of his grandmother. Nungak was isolated from his family and left unable to contact him following his relocation to Ottawa. The experiment, with archived documentation, was conducted as to determine if the Inuit had the same amount of intelligence as their non-Inuit counterparts. While conducting the experiment, the Canadian government expressed its awareness of the ramifications the program would hold in its deterioration of family ties and its destruction of Inuit culture. The Canadian government would later conduct a similar program in 1965, resettling four Inuit girls. In 2009, a film detailing their experiences The Experimental Eskimos was made by filmmaker Barry Greenwald.

Career
Nungak returned to his home community during the 1970s and worked as a translator and interpreter for the Canadian government. He also worked as an editor for Tukisinaqtuk "Message", a trilingual newsletter, as well as a broadcaster for CBC North Iqaluit.

Creation of Nunavik
Nungak was described as one of the leading figures in the building of the Inuit region known as Nunavik. He, along with Charlie Watt, were the founding members of the Northern Quebec Inuit Association (NQIA) in 1972, and served as its secretary-treasurer. The association served to represent the Inuit and negotiate land claims alongside Quebec and the Canadian government. As a member of the NQIA, Nungak was one of eleven signatories to the James Bay and Northern Québec Agreement (JBNQA) in 1975.

From 1984 and 1987, Nungak was co-chair of the Inuit Committee on National Issues, negotiating with the Canadian government that Inuit rights be enshrined within the Canadian constitution. Between 1995 to 1998 he was the president of the Makivik Corporation, which was responsible to administrate the compensation funding as part of the JBNQA. Nungak, who was appointed president of the organization in 1995 to succeed Simeonie Nalukturuk, was primaried in 1997 by two challengers, but won with 79% of the vote cast by beneficiaries of the agreement.

Writing career and journalism
Nungak is a prolific journalist, having written over sixty articles for a variety of magazines. Fluent in English, French, and Inuktitut, he has published books in all three languages. His writings focus on the preservation of Inuit stories and to increase awareness on the preservation of the Inuit languages. Nungak has previously published collections of stories from Puvirnituq, collections on the deliberations of Nunavik elders, and the trilingual ''Illirijavut. ᐃᓪᓕᕆᔭᕗᑦ. That which we treasure. La langue que nous chérissons'' for the purposes of Inuktitut language revitalization. One of the subjects of Nungak's works is the fictional study "Qallunology", the Inuit study of white people. Qallunology is featured heavily in the documentary Qallunaat! Why White People Are Funny, of which he co-directed.

Political career
Nungak ran twice for federal and provincial office. He ran for the seat of Duplessis as an independent politican during the 1976 Quebec general election Nungak recieved 1916 votes, placing fourth. He subsequently ran in the 1979 Canadian federal election, again as an independent politican, running in the riding of Abitibi. Nungak would lose the race, only recieving 986 votes or two percent of the vote.

Nungak was openly critical of the Quebec sovereignty movement and the Parti Québécois who had pushed for an independent Quebec. Nungak expressed his concerns that an independent Quebec would potentially isolate the Inuit of Nunavik by severing their ties with the other Inuit in Canada, and subsequently end the relationship that the special relationship Nunavik had with the federal government. Nungak had pushed for the federal government to intervene in the scenario Quebec was to become independent. He was critical of the soverignty movement, whose rhetoric ignored Indigenous voices as they were deemed "inconsequential" compared to the Francophone Quebecois electorate. In response to that argument, Nungak retorted stating: “[well], it may be true that our numbers are inconsequential but the land we tread—where we have had our homes for thousands of years—is not inconsequential at all". As president of the Makivik Corporation, Nungak went on speaking engagements in Brussels, Geneva, and London to advocate against the movement and a potential second independence referendum. As part of his engagements, Nungak met with the Deputy High Commissioner for Human Rights at the United Nations and the Royal Geographical Society of London. Nungak formerly served as a councillor for the community of Kangirsuk.

Awards and accolades
In 2017, Nungak recieved the National Order of Quebec by Premier of Quebec Philippe Couillard during the 2017 Canadian honours in recognition to his contributions to Quebec's society. He was awarded the Knight insignia.

In 2021, Nungak was one of five recipients of the First Peoples' Medal by the Lieutenant Governor of Quebec J. Michel Doyon to honour their contributions in their communities and abroad.

Personal life
Nungak lives in the community of Kangirsuk with his wife and seven children. Nungak currently works as a cultural commentator as well as for the Avataq Cultural Institute for issues of language preservation.

Bibliography: List of works

 * Available in English
 * 1969: Eskimo Stories from Povungnituk. Unikkaatuat sanaugarngnik atyingualiit Puvirngniturngmit. ISBN 9780660502854
 * 2017: Wrestling With Colonialism on Steroids: Quebec Inuit Fight for Their Homeland ISBN 9781550654684
 * Available in French
 * 1975: Légendes inuit de Povungnituk. Unikkaatuat sanaugarngnik atyingualiit Puvirngniturngmit ISBN 978-0660502854
 * 2019: Contre le colonialisme dopé aux stéroïdes. Le combat des Inuit du Québec pour leurs terres ancestrales ISBN 9782764625682
 * Available in English and French
 * 2012: Illirijavut. ᐃᓪᓕᕆᔭᕗᑦ. That which we treasure. La langue que nous chérissons ISBN 978-2-921644-88-4
 * All works of Nungak's are available in Inuktitut

Early life
Tala was born in London, England. Her father is British Jamaican while her mother was of British and Irish descent. Tala described her upbringing as "amazing", with a stable family and encouragement from her family in being able to do what she wanted to do. She said that there was "equal amounts of discipline and love" when she was growing up.

Tala first played music at 8 years old, when she played the clarinet. Tala would go to regular music classes every Saturday and would do a "mixture of clarinet, orchestra, and classics". Along with playing the clarinet, Tala played the oboe and the double bass, her playing of which she described as "rubbish". As a child, Tala described her favorite musicians as Take That, Stevie Wonder, Michael Jackson, and Beyoncé, of whom she stated she had an "dangerous [obsession]" with. Tala first started to sing at the age of 15 at the suggestion of her music teacher, Miss Raven. She first engaged with writing music during her studies as an AS-Level, at the age of 18, where she took composition, during her time studying it, she was tasked with composing a musical piece. At home, she would experiment with Logic Pro and producing demos which she would then publish onto SoundCloud.

Career
During her time at the University of Bristol, she studied English literature of which she would graduate with first-class honours. Tala turned down the chance to pursue a Master's degree at the University of Cambridge in favor of pursue a career in music. Tala finished her first and second EPs Starry Ache and Sensitive Soul while she was in university at age 21. She finished her single Lovestained as she was finishing her dissertation. Her thesis was titled "The presence of white spectatorship in Kendrick Lamar’s To Pimp a Butterfly". In it, Tala argues that Lamar saw the white spectator as being both fascinated and fearful of black masculinity, examining the white gaze and seeing black masculinity as something to be feared.

Tala was discovered as a musical artist following the submission of her demos to the Instagram account Arthoecollective. Mikey Alfred, founder of streetwear brand Illegal Civilization, discovered Tala's music through the account. Alfred first played Tala's demo at a Beats 1 show hosted with Pharrell Williams.

Tala's moniker was derived from her birth name. Hope was her given name at birth, while Tala is derived from her middle name Natasha. Natasha, a Russian language name, was referred to in the diminutive as Tala, which she found while looking up nicknames for the name online. Finding the name Tala beautiful, she used it as her own name as an artist.

Artistry and public image
Tala's All My Girls Like To Fight was listed as one of Barack Obama's favorite songs of 2020. Her song Tiptoeing was chosen by Clara Amfo as BBC One's "Hottest Record in the World" on October 19, 2021.

Tala's musical style was described by herself speaking to Gay Times as "the late 90s, early noughties American R&B music, bossa nova, pop, indie as well." Speaking to British Vogue she stated that she wanted to create "a sound that I'd never heard before but wanted to listen to", and that the resulting product was a synthesis between bossa nova with Latin influences, with R&B and soul influence.

Her musical works often draw their inspiration from authors that Tala admire such as William Shakespeare, J. D. Salinger, Donna Tartt, Zadie Smith, Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie, Ruth Ozeki, Françoise Sagan, Chinua Achebe, Maya Angelou, and Audre Lorde. Tala describes Sylvia Plath as her favorite poet. Her EP Sensitive Soul was inspired by Eve's Hollywood by Eve Babitz and The Goldfinch by Donna Tartt. Tala derives inspiration from objects of desire and biblical references, such as the Garden of Eden and Adam and Eve. Tala's single Party Sickness drew from the social experiences faced by youth struggling to acclimate to social situations following the COVID-19 pandemic.

Personal life
Tala understood that she was bisexual when she was 14 years old, and she felt that she was in the LGBTQIA+ community though her interaction with music and books. She came out at the age of 14 to her parents, who accepted her. Speaking to Complex Magazine Tala described her difficulties in finding a sense of identity and the lack of representation that LGBT individuals face in mainstream media, music, and literature.

Tala, who was born to a Jamaican father and British-Irish mother, considers herself Black or Mixed Race. Describing her experiences as an individual coming from two different backgrounds, Tala stated she felt caught between two cultures, having to navigate between two differing cultural spaces as a child. She describes her interactions with her peers and how she felt the need to change the way she spoke navigating between different cultures, being asked "You're black, why do you speak like you're posh?"

Early life and education
Fiorentini was born in 1983, born to an Italian father and Chinese mother. Fiorentini has formerly lived in Argentina.

Career
Fiorentini began her journalistic work in 2004 with War Resisters League and Left Turn.

Fiorentini with her associates launched Newsbroke, a subsidiary of the larger AJ+ network. The channel focuses on comedic spins on current events, with a focus on outreach to younger audiences. The program covered issues both current events, as well as larger issues such as white fragility, labour unionism , toxic masculinity, George Soros, and gun control. Newsbroke was shortlisted for an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Short-Form Variety Series in 2018. The program was discontinued during June of 2018.

Fiorentini is the host of The Bitchuation Room, a political podcast which features Fiorentini covering the previous week's events. She also is a contributor on The Young Turks along with its associated program The Damage Report hosted by John Iadarola. Fiorentini served as a correspondent on Explorer on the National Geographic channel.

Planned Missions
Lavochkin has drafted yet to be funded concepts for deep-space spacecraft.
 * Kometa Grunt, a sample return from the surface of a yet to be determined comet.
 * Asteroid Grunt, a sample return or material from the surface of a yet to be determined asteroid.
 * Yupiter-Ganymede, eventually realized as Laplace-P.
 * Gipersat, a mission to Saturn, focusing on Hyperion and Iapetus.
 * Neptrit, a mission focusing on Neptune and Triton.
 * Obertur, a mission dedicated to study Uranus, Titania, and Oberon.

=Campaign= John Horgan, leader of the British Columbia New Democratic Party and the Premier of British Columbia, announced his resignation on June 28, 2022. Horgan, who had recently recovered from cancer, cited concerns regarding his health for the next two years as the reason as to why he was stepping down as premier. Horgan had recently faced criticism for pushing forward a plan to redevelop the Royal BC Museum for $789-million, which had been reversed.

Several candidates were speculated to be interested in running following Horgan's announcement. With media speculation that Selina Robinson and David Eby were pursuing runs for leadership. Selina Robinson, who initially was considering a run, eventually declined to run for the party's leadership. Eby formally pursued a run on July 19, 2022. Ravi Kahlon, who was expected to be Eby's greatest rival in the race, expressed his support for Eby's candidacy. Anjali Appadurai, the federal party's candidate for the riding of Vancouver Granville, announced her intention to run on August 10, 2022.

Eby, widely seen as the frontrunner in the race, currently serves as British Columbia's attorney general and housing minister. Eby had previously turned down invitations to run as premier, instead serving as campaign manager for John Horgan's run for leader of the BC NDP. 48 of the 57 members of the provincial party's caucus supported his candidacy, and united with Eby as the sole MLA in the race. Eby is seen as a moderate, with his campaign focused on providing availability for middle-class housing, and a focus on remedying the homelessness crisis in larger cities such as Vancouver. Eby proposed a tax on house flipping, a law on preventing stratas that exclude young families, and earmarking $500 thousand in grants for non-profit organizations to purchase rental buildings and preventing housing displacement. On a campaign stop in the Sunshine Coast, Eby stated he would "dramatically [increase] the availability of both housing and healthcare workers" to address both affordability and healthcare concerns.

Appadurai, seen as an "outsider candidate", challenged Eby after supporters expressed concerns that the race would be a "no-questions-asked coronation", expressing that it was "not good for democracy." Appadurai was best known for her speech at the 2011 United Nations Climate Change Conference during her time as a college student, which went viral. Appadurai is running as a democratic socialist, reframing how the provincial executive approaches decision making away from industry, along with proposing a transition that puts workers first. Appadurai expressed her critique of the incumbent BC NDP government's failures on the issues of "climate, affordability, and on stopping ... wealth accumulation." Appadurai prioritized creating homes for homeless and vulnerable British Columbians, as well as ensuring residential buildings are equipped with sustainable cooling mechanisms.

On August 23, 2022, it was reported by the Vancouver Sun that Eby expressed his "frustration" with Appadurai's entry into the race. Eby commented that with Appadurai's entry, "it delays moving into the office by several months." If Eby was acclaimed, the race would potentially end on October 3, but the results would be released on December 3 with her entry. Following allegations of entitlement, Eby tweeted that he was "not dismissive of Anjali’s campaign. Just the opposite — the race is healthier because she’s put herself forward as a candidate and I take her campaign seriously."

It was alleged by the Vancouver Sun and by Appadurai's supporters that by the end of the September 4 deadline for membership signups the Appadurai campaign had signed up 10,000 new members to Eby's 6,000 new members.

Appadurai's Disqualification
On September 8, 2022, the BC NDP began investigating allegations of Appadurai's campaign violating the BC Election Act. Atiya Jaffar, a colleague of Appadurai's, was seen offering to pay for the $10 fee for individuals who were unable to afford the fee during an Instagram Live event to rally supporters to join before the deadline. According to the Election Act, individuals are prohibited from paying for another's membership of a political party. The BC NDP was additionally investigating whether members of the BC Greens were actively participating in the campaign, which is forbidden under both parties' constitutions, prohibiting members from being in two parties at once. Appadurai stated that Jaffar misspoke and that the video in question was removed.

It was reported on September 16, 2022 that Appadurai's campaign was under investigation by both Elections BC along with the BC NDP for potential violations under the Election Act. The investigation centered on whether Dogwood BC improperly contributed to Appadurai's campaign, being accused of donating to Appadurai's campaign as well as using its resources in order to aid Appadurai's campaign to sign up new members. Under the Election Act, only "eligible individuals" are able to provide political contributions, while organizations are barred from making any political contributions.

One complaint brought forward pertained to the "solicitation of fraudulent sign-ups of members from other parties", including claims that Dogwood told supporters to pause their previous party memberships in order to join the NDP to vote for Appadurai and re-join their original party following the race. Another issue under investigation was emails sent in support of Appadurai by a supporter and released by Jas Johal that told Green Party members to quit the party so that they could vote for Appadurai, and in the case that she lost, they could rejoin the Greens. If Appadurai's campaign was found to have violated rules for leadership or the Election Act, sanctions, including disqualification, were possible.

On October 7, 2022 it was reported by CBC News that the BC Greens turned down an offer by the BC NDP to provide a neutral third party with its membership list in order to conduct an audit in order to determine whether any members joined the NDP fraudulently. The BC Greens turned down the request, citing the party's privacy policy. The NDP released a statement expresing concerns that the party was "attempting a hostile takeover" of the party during its leadership election, reflecting poorly on the party and putting its registered party status at risk.

On October 19, a leaked report written by chief electoral officer Elizabeth Cull concluded that the Appadurai campaign had improperly coordinated with third parties to sign up new members to the party. The report recommended "no other remedy can adequately address the failings and breaches of the Appadurai Campaign" and recommended that her candidacy would be disqualified. The conclusion was made on the grounds that individuals joined the party "fraudulently" and that the campaign violated the Election Act limits on campaign spending. The report stated that due to the participation of third parties in the campaign it was "impossible to create a level playing field at this point, and impossible to restore the Leadership Election campaign to a state of integrity in which [Cull] could have confidence." Cull's report centered on the participation of Dogwood and 350.org with the Appadurai campaign, and that the membership was "tainted by fraudulent signups ... that Ms. Appadurai and her campaign did not display the honesty or candour in responding to the allegations." A spot check revealed 25.3 percent of new members were ineligible due to their prior support or membership of another party, and another 2.5 percent of members were ineligible because of unpaid membership fees. The report detailed connections between Appadurai's campaign staff and members from Dogwood, which contradicted claims that the two campaigns were separate. Cull concluded that "aware of, accepted, relied upon, and took into account the membership drive activities of Dogwood in relation to its own campaign activities and strategies regarding the membership drive." Appadurai responded that Cull "seems unwilling or unable to understand this dynamic of movement organizing, and presents it as suspect." In addition, Appadurai's campaign stated that the allegations surrounding her campaign and Dogwood resulted from a "new and controversial interpretation of the rules, issued mid-campaign, and applied retroactively." Following the leak of the report, Appadurai's supporters staged a rally in front of the BC Legislature Building.

The report revealed that Eby's campaign had a central role in bringing forward information that pertained to Appadurai's eventual disqualification. Eby's campaign launched a formal complaint on September 15, with a second report on October 4 and a "further summary" on October 7. The October 4 allegations were not fully investigated, while the contents of the October 7 report "did not add materially to the investigation.” During the intervening period, Eby appeared to support Appadurai's ongoing candidacy.

In response to the leaked report, the Appadurai campaign launched a petition entitled "Let Her Run". Several members of the Federal New Democratic Party expressed their criticism at the decision by Cull's report to disqualify Appadurai's candidacy, including: Niki Ashton, Leah Gazan, Matthew Green, Lori Idlout, and Bonita Zarrillo. Former NDP MLAs Joan Sawicki and Tom Perry expressed their desire for the race to continue. Ontario MPP Joel Harden and former MPP Cheri DiNovo expressed their support for Appadurai's continued candidacy in the race.

On the evening of October 19, the NDP provincial executive voted to disqualify Appadurai's candidacy. With Appadurai's candidacy disqualified, it paved the way for David Eby's candidacy to be acclaimed as the leader of the BC NDP. Following the decision to disqualify Appadurai, MLAs Elenore Sturko of the BC Liberals and Adam Olsen of the BC Greens decried the decision. Potential litigation may follow if it is revealed that the Appadurai campaign finds there were problems with the process being followed leading up to her disqualification. In a press conference on October 20, Appadurai stated that she would continue to stay in the NDP despite her disqualification. Appadurai implored supporters to "fight from the inside" and continue their membership in the party in order to ultimately "reshape" the party.

=Aroha Bridge=

Aroha Bridge is a New Zealand adult animated comedy by Jessica Hansell. The series focuses on the biracial twins Kōwhai and Monty Hook as they navigate the fictional community of Aroha Bridge and their attempts at finding stardom. Aroha Bridge began as a webcomic entitled Hook Ups, which was first published in Volume magazine in 2011. It was later renamed and made into a series of 3 minute online shorts that first aired on the New Zealand Herald website. Aroha Bridge was later greenlit as a full series by NZ On Air and aired on Māori Television. The animated series first aired on May 23, 2013 and stars Jessica Hansell, Rizván Tu’Itahi, Madeleine Sami, Frankie Stevens, and Scotty Cotter.

Synopsis
Aroha Bridge focuses on the fictional community of Aroha Bridge and the multicultural community within it, with a focus on "authentic, urban Māori characters". The series focuses on the twins Kōwhai and Monty Hook as they try to navigate the complex relations of their whānau and hometown all while the two try and achieve stardom.

Main

 * Jessica Hansell as Kōwhai Hook, the motivated but also mildly delusional twin sister of Monty, of whom she forms half of the band "Hook Ups" with.
 * Rizván Tu'itahi as Monty Hook, the laid-back and talented twin brother of Kōwhai, of whom forms half of the band "Hook Ups" with.
 * Madeleine Sami as Mum Hook, the mother of Kōwhai and Monty and described as being "pakeha on the outside, wannabe Māori on the inside". She is passionate about Te Reo, but is not fluent in the language, reflective of other amateurs in New Zealand.
 * Frankie Stevens as Manu Hook, the father of Kōwhai and Monty, described as the reverse of Mum Hook, in that he is Māori on the outside and wannabe pakeha on the inside, suppressing his internalized racism. Manu is a former military member and enjoys rugby, he additionally cannot stand his brother Noogy.
 * Scotty Cotter as Ira Hook, the twins' eccentric cousin who serves as their band's number one fan and as comic encouragement towards the twins' shenanigans.

Recurring

 * Madeleine Sami as Angeline Hook, the twins' 10-year old cousin who is a successful international pop star. She serves as Kōwhai's nemesis.
 * Madeleine Sami as Aunty Winny, the twins' sporty aunt.
 * Oscar Kightley as Mayor TokoUso, the Samoan/Tongan mayor of Aroha Bridge and described as having a model minority complex.
 * Julian Dennison as Tapi, a street hustler who deals in dubious goods.
 * Matai Smith as Uncle Noogy, the twins' activist uncle and Polynesian Panther who exclusively speaks in the Māori language.
 * Rachel House as Whaea Bubbles, the twins' grandmother. Hansell described as a "a Frankenstein of everybody’s whaea".

Production
Aroha Bridge was originally entitled Hook Ups, and began as a webcomic by Jessica Hansell, also known as Coco Solid, which was first published in 2011 by the music magazine Volume. Hansell was asked to create a comic by the editor of Volume, Sam Wicks. It was then developed into a ten-part short web animation, which debuted on the The New Zealand Herald website. Before being fully greenlit as an animated series with support by NZ On Air's Brenda Leeuwenberg, with the show airing on Māori Television.

The series had been renamed following concerns by fans who would google up the original title and would instead find pornography under the same title. The title was chosen "because it's a big part of the show, in terms of geography, their suburb, their whanau" according to Hansell. The inclusion of words in the Māori language in a naturalistic format was part of the ethos of the show, Hansell stated that the show's team wanted to make Maoridom a "natural, braided thing". In addition, the new name of the show was a reference to Māngere Bridge, New Zealand, where Hansell had grown up. The show's location is inspired by Māngere Bridge during the 1980's and 1990's, but additionally has "DNA from Porirua and Newtown and the Waikato." The was described by Hansell as a "Frankenstein beast of all of my friends, family, and me – showing that everyone is connected whether we like it or not", and that the characters were all a tiny part of her.

Themes
Aroha Bridge writing deliberately touches on and amplifies contemporary social issues facing Pacific Islanders and Pacific culture as a whole. Alex Behan writing in Stuff wrote: Aroha Bridge shows a "layered world addressing Aotearoa's cultural issues with a mix of insight, outrage and comedy". The first episode of the second season discusses themes of generational resentment, cultural appropriation, and hypocrisy in politics. The first episode of the third season touches on the Hollywood perception of the Pacific and the exploitation of Pacific culture for financial gain. The second episode of the third season discusses the systemic barriers that Maori face in the education system in attaining proper education and scholarships. In the fourth episode of the third season, the episode discusses the issue of loan sharking in low-income areas. The third season often addresses the right to protest, reflecting the events of Ihumātao that were happening as the season aired.

The portrayal of the series' characters is intended to spark a nuanced conversation on the social factors leading to their characterization, from Manu's internalized racism and Uncle Noogy's radical activism. The series' humor was described by Hansell as being rooted in multiculturalism. The portrayal of the characters in Aroha Bridge is meant to dispel stereotypes and dispel previous instances of superficial and reductive treatment of Maori and Pasifika with regards to their representations in media. The development for the individual characters which series showcases was described as "mad developed" by Leonie Hayden in The Spinoff.

The series' four Maori writers are credited for the series' nuanced approach towards contemporary issues facing the Maori community, with their lived experienced and "cultural truth" being reflected in the series. Hansell cited her frustration with the "same archetypes tumble drying all the time", getting into storytelling to prioritize Maori and Pacific stories. Hansell describes the show's mixture of animation and comedy masking a deeper subtext that would come out to viewers as they watch the show, stressing that there needs to be recognition in New Zealand for the "counter-cultural freedom" that adult animation overseas is recognized for. Comedy, as Hansell describes, is a way for her to cope with the politics and dysfunction that she sees in her daily life.

Reception
Alex Behan writing for Stuff described Aroha Bridge as a "cultural minefield of sorts", stating that the show "manages to walk the delicate tightrope that only brilliantly pitched satire can". Behan praised the portrayal of some of the series' characters for how they take "painful ugly realities and [mine] them for laughs", and the thought that was put into the show's production would "cement Jessica Hansell as one of Aotearoa's most important voices".

Miriama Aoake writing in Pantograph Punch described her familiarity with the characters that the show had portrayed. Stating there had "never been a TV show that can both reflect and deny those buzzy idiosyncrasies in a whānau dynamic", describing it as both "disarming and affirming". Aoake praised the marriage of humor and animation to deliver a sensation that "hits like a delayed concussion".

Rachel Montpelier writing in Women and Hollywood stated that the show's interesting and multifaceted presentation surpassed a comparison with combination of the family dynamics in Transparent, the world building found in Orange Is the New Black, and Key & Peele dissection on the expressions of race. Describing Aroha Bridge as "rare series that has a defined point-of-view, a balance of specific and universal humor".

Accolades
Aroha Bridge has been featured in several film festivals including the SBS Short Film Festival, ImagineNATIVE Film and Media Arts Festival, and the Mother Tongue Film Festival. In 2019, the series won "Best Web Series" in a field of 15 during the 2019 Los Angeles Film Awards.

Description
The territory of Ashuanipi was defined under the terms of the An Act respecting the territories of Abittibi, Mistassini and Ashuanipi (Loi concernant les territoires d'Abittibi, de Mistassini et d'Ashuanipi) of 1899. Article 2.3 of the act read: "The territory of Ashuanipi is bounded to the north, to the east and to the west by the limits of the province; and to the south and southwest by the county of Saguenay". The Revised statutes of the province of Quebec, 1909 would recognize the same description of the territory. The Territorial Division Act description remains largely the same, but alters the south and southwest portion's boundaries by the "electoral districts of Duplessis and Saguenay".

The territory, as defined by the provisions of the former act, directly included the river basins of the Ashuanipi River, Hamilton River, and Esquimaux River. It additionally included "all other parts of territory watered by water-courses flowing directly towards the Atlantic".

History
When Canada purchased the territory of Rupert's Land from the British in 1870, the potential for territorial expansion northwards became available to the Quebec government. During a session held on April 8, 1885, the Legislative Assembly of Quebec devised a special committee with regards to the potential expansion of the border into the north. The borders that were devised by the committee were adopted by both the Parliament of Quebec and the Parliament of Canada in 1898 as the Boundaries Extension Acts of 1898. In the provisions of An Act respecting the territories of Abittibi, Mistassini and Ashuanipi of 1899, the newly annexed northern territory was divided into three regions. The act decreed that the lands of Abitibi and Mistassini would be annexed alongside it. The area that was claimed remained poorly defined at its eastern frontier, running alongside the British Dominion of Newfoundland's claim, whose border was also poorly defined at the time. During its existence as a territory of Quebec, for judicial and registration purposes, the territory of Ashuanipi formed a part of the historical county of Saguenay.

In 1912, a further extension was granted for Quebec under the provisions of the Quebec Boundaries Extension Act, 1912. Allowing Quebec's northern border to include that of the remainder of the District of Ungava. This revision continued to be ambiguous with regards to the definition of the territory, continuing to refer to the area on the eastern reaches as the land "over which the island of Newfoundland has lawful jurisdiction".

The territory ceased to exist in 1927, following a ruling by the Privy Council of Canada, which ruled that the 52nd parallel north would serve as an effective border between Newfoundland and Quebec. As much of Ashuanipi laid above the parallel, the territorial claim was effectively annulled. Quebec continues to assert a claim over the portions between the southern portions of Ashuanipi and the 52nd parallel.

Contemporary Quebec
Ashuanipi continues to be recognized as a territory within the provisions of the Territorial Division Act. The act's provisions state that it is under the registration division of Sept-Îles, alongside the provincial riding of Duplessis, and the territory of New Québec.

Plot
The episode starts off directly following the previous episode, with Tuca (Tiffany Haddish) and Bertie (Ali Wong) in a car and struggling to talk to each other. An unspecified amount of time passes before Bertie abruptly stops the car as a sheep had blocked her way. As the sheep, joined with its herd, cross the road, the two break down in the car and reconcile. While Bertie stated she wanted a silent car ride to give some time to think, the two immediately break into song. The two pass a sign that denotes the Jelly Lakes are in 20 miles. Tuca takes the sign and recalls that Bertie's family had a cabin there, while Bertie attempts to deflect the matter before being cut off by a motorcyclist.

Bertie, visibly frustrated by the motorcyclist, chases her down the road all the way to the Jelly Lakes Mall. The motorcyclist enters the mall, and Bertie angrily follows her in. Bertie, seeing a swimsuit, is visibly discomforted, but Tuca immediately distracts her by highlighting the mall had a Girl Thingz store. It immediately cuts to a Girl Thingz commercial parodying advertisements aimed towards teenage girls. The two eagerly try on the store's offerings before overhearing two teenaged friends who are similarly reconciling. Recalling their own experiences, the two embrace, garnering the ire of the two teenagers. The two run out of the store, with Bertie stating the two are shoplifting from Girl Thingz. The two proceed to enjoy the mall's offerings before sitting down at the food court to catch up. Bertie recalls her uncomfortable experiences with Pastry Pete, and her guilt for allowing it to happen to someone else. Noticing the biker leaving the mall, the two follow her.

The two cut off the motorcyclist and Bertie angrily confronts her before the motorcyclist takes off her helmet. It is revealed that the motorcyclist was Meredith Maple (Jane Lynch), a turaco who was Bertie's former swim coach at Jelly Lakes summer camp. Bertie eventually caves in and goes to the cabins at her invitation. The two settle down and eventually Tuca falls asleep, Bertie walks out onto the deck and towards the island at the center of the lake, while ignoring her boyfriend's texts.

The two are awoken by Coach Maple, who offers them firewood. The two tour her cabin and meet her wife, Pat (Isabella Rossellini). The two engage in jet skiing and Bertie tours Tuca around the Jelly Lakes. The two come across Peanut Butter Island, but Bertie avoids the topic and deflects from the issue. Tuca enters a jet ski race but Bertie falls off the back, causing her and her phone to sink into the jelly. Tuca pulls Bertie up, and Bertie states her frustration and her wishes to go back to the cabin. Tuca invites a dinner invitation from Coach Maple and Bertie begrudgingly accepts.

While getting ready for dinner, Tuca is greeted with Pat's artwork. Pat decorates hollowed eggs with paper cutouts. Bertie meanwhile, is talking with Coach Maple who actively recounts her past with Bertie much to her discomfort. Coach Maple confronts Bertie on why she quit swimming, but Bertie continues to deflect on the issue. After continued assertions by Coach Maple, Bertie yells at her and storms out.

Tuca catches up with Bertie, while looking at the sun setting. Bertie remarks her wish in how she wants to protect the teenagers who are playing in the water from the world and men. Bertie opens up about her experiences, with the style changing into the paper cutout style that Pat's art took the form of. Bertie had wanted to swim to Peanut Butter Island and had trained all summer to do so. On the day of the swim, she had gotten to the dock early before Coach Maple had arrived, and bought a new red swimsuit. She was accompanied with the lifeguard who had praised her for her talent at age 12 and told her he wanted to show her something in the woods. Trusting the adult, she followed him in. Bertie breaks down in tears recounting her story and Tuca comforts her. Tuca declares that Bertie should reclaim the island and make it "Peanut Bertie Island".

Tuca waking up finds Bertie swimming to Peanut Butter Island. Tuca frantically informs Pat and Coach Maple, who follow her in a boat to ensure her safety. The group follow Bertie as she makes her swim, but are interrupted by a giant crab who attacks Coach Maple. Bertie, sinking to the bottom of the lake, sees her 12 year old self crying alone in the woods. She embraces her 12 year old self and the two swim to the surface together. Bertie completes the remaining stretch of her swim with her friends cheering her on. Bertie completes the swim and the group engage in a barbecue with a torn crab leg from the giant crab Coach Maple had fought. Bertie tells Tuca she's ready to go back home and Pat remarks that she made an egg detailing their experiences.

Production
Lisa Hanawalt, in an interview to TV Guide, stated that she deliberately chose not to include a scene featuring the assault that had been inflicted upon Bertie, stating "[she] didn't want anyone to judge whether or not [Bertie] overreacted to it" but instead, Hanawalt wanted to illustrate that "something happened, and it traumatized her. And it really doesn't matter what those specifics are." In addition, the paper cutout style that was employed by the episode was made so that the man who had assaulted Bertie would have his face not shown, and avoiding hearing his voice, specifically choosing for the episode to not have any male characters in its cast.

The events and the reprocussions of the events leading up to and surrounding "The Jelly Lakes" would later be further discussed in the second season. In season 2 episode 5, Bertie is struggling to process fantasies involving a former abuser, eventually coming to her therapist who would explain to her that Bertie may be interested in exploring her desires in an environment where consent is prioritized. In season 2 episode 8, "Corpse Week", where Bertie would confront her past traumas with her family. The neglect from her parents that was faced by Bertie following her assault, and the actions that they took afterwards are shown to have taken a toll on the character and how she saw herself in the series.

Reception
Reception for the episode was generally positive, with it being included on several "best of" lists for the year of 2019. The episode was included on The Hollywood Reporter "The 10 Best TV Episodes of 2019" list, Daniel Fienberg would describe it as "quite illuminating" with its embrace of the comedic elements of the show to set up a "well earned and revelatory" episode he considered a "gut punch". Entertainment Weekly would put the episode among its "The 30 best TV episodes of 2019" list at number 26, describing the episode's visuals as "unforgettable".

"The Jelly Lakes" was nominated for three awards during the 47th Annie Awards for the categories of Best General Audience Animated Television/Broadcast Production, Ali Wong for her performance in the episode for Outstanding Achievement for Voice Acting in an Animated Television / Broadcast Production, and Shauna McGarry for Outstanding Achievement for Writing in an Animated Television / Broadcast Production. McGarry would go on to win the prize for her writing on the episode.

S.R. Westwood writing for The Mary Sue described the episode as having "beautiful visual storytelling", praising the episode for focusing on the victim's subjectivity, rather than the monstrousness of the abuse of trust that had taken place. Kylie Cheung writing for Salon.com described the writing as "thoughtful, survivor-centric" in how it spoke to a common experience for women around the world and the struggles its characters go through. Mary Retta writing in Bitch contrasted the episode's approach towards healing after a traumatizing event, while other onscreen narratives would show the embrace of another individual, Retta acknowledges how the show allowed Bertie to heal on her own. Karin Cho writing in Thought Catalog praised the episode for "artistically combining trauma and healing" and empathized with the plight of its characters.

Kayla Cobb writing for Decider praised the fight leading up to the episode in how their "honest, painful, and stunted confrontation" and the dynamic that the two had "shaped [her] almost more than any other", stating that the show had defied a genre which had an often difficult relationship with women. Ali Mattingly writing for Nerdist praised the visual style of the episode in relation to the story that it had told, stating that the "animation takes full advantage of the medium" with regards to its approach towards trauma and its impact on an individual's life. Arielle Bernstein writing in The Week would follow up with how the visual style employed by Pat's paper cutouts "centers the victim's story and neither sensationalizes nor obscures important details". The episode was praised for the events following the episode with regards to Bertie's boyfriend's reaction following the events of the episode.

Following the show's cancellation following the first season, several writers would state their disappointment in not knowing the series' continuation following the events of The Jelly Lakes. Caroline Framke writing for Variety stated that she had never seen another show "tackle this particular horror with such care" and that the possibility of being unable to see Bertie's recovery after having unravelled her past traumas would be "downright crushing". Several other reviewers would describe the episode as a "standout" or as one of the series' best. Rotten Tomatoes: The Ultimate Binge Guide highlighted the episode for its uniquely female lens and its events as part of why there was massive backlash regarding the series' cancellation.

History
The party originally was named the "Finnmark List" (Finnmarkslista), a name which was decided upon in the last minute prior to running in the 2005 Norwegian Sámi parliamentary election. The party was eventually renamed in 2009 as the North Calotte People by Toril Bakken Kåven who considered the name "beautiful" and reflective of the common history and the multiple ethnic groups living in the Cap of the North. In addition to preventing confusion, as the party did not run in solely the region of Finnmark anymore.

The party recieved its highest share of vote during the 2021 Norwegian Sámi parliamentary election, becoming the second largest party in the Sami parliament. Despite their increased result, the party was unable to find viable coalition partners and thus went into opposition. Analysts cited the mobilization of the party's voters in select electoral districts as contributing to the party's win.

Ideology
The party describes itself as having a "want to safeguard culture, industry, and society". The party cites the communal nature of living, interaction, relation, and land use in the north as its reasoning. Rolf Edmund Lund described the party's policies as pragmatic with regards to issues of the outfield industry, rights to land and water, coastal Sami interests, individuals who cannot speak Sami due to assmiliation, and equality with a focus on the Kven people. In addition to describing the party's rhetoric as populist, the party is described as advocating for positive discrimination.

The party contrasts with the Norwegian Sámi Association by being on the party's ideological right. It has been compared with the Progress Party in both its rhetoric and attitudes. It has been described as "building lines of conflict between Sami who speak Sami and especially against the reindeer husbandry industry". The party has been formerly criticized for describing Sami-speakers as "pigs".

The party supports all support and assistance towards the country of Ukraine during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. The party urged Norwegian authorities to cease all cooperation with Russia and impose sanctions as long as the war was ongoing. The party cited the north's increased potential risk of invasion by Russia.

Indigenous and minority rights
Toril Bakken Kåven stated that the party "[stands] firm on Sami rights and indigenous peoples' rights" but that there was a need for responsible management of those rights. She stated that there should be freedom for deviation in order to create progress for their respective groups. The party objects to the concept of Free, prior and informed consent as the basis for northern policy. The party additionally advocates for the right for individuals to self-identify as Sami with the party advocating for reintegration of individuals whose families were forcibly assimilated into Norwegian society and whose families no longer identify as Sami.

The party is critical of the use of Sami languages to participate in Sami politics, citing the Norwegianization policy which left many Sami unable to speak their native tongue, stating there "should be equal opportunities to participate in Sami politics". On the question of whether the president of the Sami parliament should speak Sami, the NKF believes that it is acceptable if they were to speak Norwegian, as two out of three Sami individuals cannot speak a Sami language. The North Calotte People are in favour of language policies that allow students to exchange their Norwegian lessons in favor of instruction in the Kven or Sami languages. The party is in favor of additional investment in Sami language programs and the reinstatement of book buses in the Southern and Lule Sami areas. However, the party stressed for the simultaneous need for equal opportunity in politics and a pragmatic approach towards language.

The party advocates for equal treatment and equal conditions between the Norwegian, Sami, and Kven populations of the north. On issues of land use, the North Calotte People cite the communal usage by the three groups as basis for the rejection of Sami veto rights over northern land.

The party has been criticized by the leader of the Norwegian Sámi Association, Runar Myrnes Balto, for having "refined the art of attacking the rights of Sami and presenting it as an equality project". He stated that the party portrayed the Sami as wanting to have supremacy over the northern peoples, leading to an image of a culture war in the north. Myrnes Balto described the leader of the North Calotte People, Toril Bakken Kåven, as a "Trumper". Myrnes Balto had previously compared the party's policies to those of Jarl Hellesvik and his anti-Sami organization EDL.

Environment
North Calotte People oppose expanding additional protections on local lands, citing the sustainable use of nature as the best kind of protection. The party additionally opposes the concept of the Sami veto right with regards to land and natural encroachment by industry, an idea put forth by the NSR, Labour, and Centre parties. The party has previously worked to loosen protection for Sami outfield industry, which was criticized by the NSR for paving the way for industries to gain access to the outfields.

Background
Sami parliament elections are held simultaneously with the Norwegian parliament elections. Voters elect a total of 39 representatives from seven total constitutencies. The election was held on 9 September 2013 in communities with over 30 citizens on the electoral roll, communities with under 30 registered require their citizens to vote in advance between 1 July and 6 September 2013. Voting is eligible for those over 18 years of age by the end of the year in which the election is held in and are entered into the Sami parliament electoral roll, which requires individuals to meet certain criteria and individual registration.

Before the election, the governing coalition was between the Labour Party, Árja, and Åarjel-Saemiej Gielh.

Presidential candidates
The Labour Party nominated Vibeke Larsen, the Norwegian Sami Association nominated Aili Keskitalo, Arja nominated Láilá Susanne Vars, and the Progress Party nominated Aud Martinsen. The Centre Party would nominate Helge Guttormsen, but wound up with no seats.

Larsen was selected over Mariann Wollmann Magga to be the Labour Party's candidate for president. Wollmann Magga was on a joint ticket with Johan Vasara as vice president. For vice president, the Labour Party had four candidates contesting the party's nomination: Jørn Are Gaski, John Kappfjell, Johan Vasara, and Ronny Wilhelmsen. After three rounds, Vasara defeated Wilhelmsen 12-9. Willy Ørnebakk, who had previously floated his interest in running as the Labour Party's nominee, withdrew and resigned from the party. Ørnebakk cited a culture within the Labour Party which had led him to feel insecurity as a potential president.

Campaign
NRK Sápmi held debates between the various presidential candidates, a four party online meeting was held on August 21, 2013 with Vibeke Larsen (Labor Party), Laila Susanne Vars (Árja), Aili Keskitalo (NSR), and Helge Guttormsen (Sp) all participating. Among topics discussed were: Sami resource extraction and infrastructure development, cultural investment, language promotion, reindeer husbandry, potential coalition partners, and schooling.

Labor and Árja's nominees stated their opposition to collaborating with the Progress Party due to the party's stance on abolishing the parliament, while simultaneously indicating their openness to collaborating with all other parties. Centre's nominee stated that the Progress Party would not be a major factor in coalition building, and indicated their interest in a red-green coalition.

North Callotte People highlighted their focus on culture, industry, and closeness towards nature, as well as highlighting a need for a balance between Norwegian, Sami, and Kven culture. For the first time, the North Callotte People list would be put forth for a southern constituency, having only previously ran in the north. North Callotte People expressed their interest for the transformation of the Sami Parliament into a joint Sami and Kven parliament. Vibeke Larsen of the Labor Party expressed her opposition to the proposal, highlighting the cultural distinction between the Kven people and the Sami, alternatively suggesting that the Kven should establish their own parliament.

The Conservative Party's Sami parliamentary leader Anne-Marit Eira indicated her support put forward by the Unge Hoyre to shut down the Sami Parliament in exchange for reserved seats in the Storting. However, the proposal was disputed from within the party, with Bent Høie, second deputy leader, stating that there was a need for a representative body for Norway's Sami people.

This was the first election for Sami in the South, which had previously ran as Sami Settled in Southern Norway. The party targeted the Sami diaspora, but was oriented towards urban Sami living in Oslo.

Lists


A total of fifteen parties submitted lists in order to run in the 2013 election. Of the major parties, only two parties ran a full slate of candidates across the seven consistuencies, the Labor Party and the NSR. The Conservative, Progress, and Center Parties ran lists in six constituencies. Arja ran in five constituencies. North Calotte People ran in two constituencies.

Aftermath
The 2013 election resulted in a hung parliament, with neither the Labour Party nor the Norwegian Sámi Association reaching a majority coalition. It was eventually decided that Aili Keskitalo would be the next president of the Sami Parliament with a minority government. She would later be ousted in December 2016 for a coalition between the Labour Party, the Conservatives, and Arja, with Vibeke Larsen as President.

Synopsis
''Qallunaat! Why White People Are Funny'' is a role reversal documentary-style film consisting of a mix between live action segments, archival footage, and talking-head interviews. Relations between the Inuit people of Northern Canada and White Canadians are parodied, in addition to reversing the notion of the White gaze to make White Canadians the focus of Inuit anthropological study. The film lampshades the real-life relations between Inuit communities and White Canadians in a humorous manner, as well as the portrayal of Indigenous Canadians within documentary media. Referring to the tendency for documentary filmmaking to portray Indigenous Canadians as the other with films such as Nanook of the North, studying human beings like exotic specimens. The film is divided into two portions, with half devoted for the film itself, and a second portion involving the Qallunaat Studies Institute. The film features archival footage from historical documentaries set in the Arctic, in addition to interviews with a variety of Inuit personalities such as John Amagoalik, Lori Idlout, Alexina Kublu, Zebedee Nungak, and Jeff Tabvahtah.

Half of the film focuses on the activities of the "Qallunologists" working at the fictional Qallunaat Studies Institute, abbreviated as the QSI. The QSI in the context of the film, is a role reversal of the various governmental institutions that were devised to study Indigenous Canadians. As the film proceeds, the QSI hosts a conference where the participants remark on the strange behaviors that the people at the centre of their studies engage in. These behaviors include their strange manner of greeting, repression of bodily functions, need to dominate the world, their lack of common sense in the Northern Canadian environment, strange dating habits, bureaucracy, interest in the ownership of property, and the strange bodily smell emanating from their bodies. An abundance of Qallunaat lead the Inuit people to start assigning them numbers, referencing the disc numbers historically assigned to Inuit people. As the QSI conference continues, they conclude that they should call upon the Department of Qallunaat Affairs, a parody of the real-world Department of Indian Affairs, to fund a voyage into their "mysterious lands" so that the Inuit people can teach them "the values of a civilized society".

Production
Sandiford based the film around his experiences as a White Canadian spending extended amounts of time living in an Inuit community.

Reception
Keith McPherson writing in Canadian Review of Materials gave the film four out of four stars, praising the incorporation of historical and modern footage to create juxtaposition and highlighting Inuit and White Canadians. He described Qallunaat! as a powerful film that would "leave you and your students/children quietly examining the implications of … your own past and present cultural assumptions."

Overview
Kenta Takada, longhorn beetle collector and author, noted that the Japanese appreciation for insects lies within the Shinto religion. Shinto, a form of animism, places emphasis that every facet of the natural world is worthy of reverence as they are the creation of the spiritual dimension. Takada additionally noted the importance of mono no aware, Zen awareness of the transience of all things, as an important factor within the perception of insects in a Japanese context.

Historical context
Insects have occupied a place within Japanese culture for centuries. The Lady who Loved Insects, is a classic tale of a woman who collected caterpillars during the 12th century. The Tamamushi Shrine, a miniature temple from the 7th century was formerly adorned with beetlewing from the jewel beetle Chrysochroa fulgidissima.

Lafcadio Hearn, European-American scholar who became a Japanese citizen in the 19th century remarked: "In old Japanese literature, poems upon insects are to be found by thousands".

Entomophagy
In the Chūbu region of central Japan, local people raise wasp or bee larvae for the purposes of consumption. The larvae are referred to as hachinoko. Entomophagy has been a tradition within the provinces of Gifu and Nagano, mountainous regions where there was a lack of fish and livestock for protein. Foraged giant hornets are consumed at all life stages. The consumption of grasshoppers, known as inago in the Japanese language, is considered a luxury food product. In times of famine, such as the end of the Second World War, the consumption of insects like inago and hachinoko served to supplement the diets of those with little access towards other forms of protein and vitamins. Consumption of insects waned when the Japanese people gradually gained access to higher-quality livestock products. However the practice of entomophagy has been seeing a resurgence in recent years, with easily available packaged versions and with chefs looking for a sustainable food source popping up. Access to edible insects for the purpose of consumption have been gradually made easier with the advent of online shopping, as well as vending machines and retailers providing a supply. Additionally, cultural festivals, matsuri, provide a venue for consumption and highlighting local traditions of entomophagy. The Kushihara Hebo Matsuri of Ena, Gifu, is an example of such an event. Where beekeepers cultivate and then proceed to try and harvest the most hachinoko.

Insect-related hobbies
The practice of collecting beetles and crickets for the purpose of keeping them as pets is a common hobby for children in Japan. Some are captured for the purpose of fighting one another.

The live trade of exotic beetles is a common practice for collectors young and old. Specimens can range from 800 dollars to 2.5 million dollars in price. The trade of insects, particularly beetles, have been incorporated in everyday locations such as department stores and vending machines. Additionally, there exist televised matches of beetle wrestling competitions and petting zoos featuring beetles.

Symbolic uses
The firefly occupies a place within the Japanese perception of summer. Poets, including Matsuo Basho, Yosa Buson, and Issa Kobayashi employ the firefly as a kigo, phrase associated with a particular season, within the body of their works. Fireflies appear as the second most prevalent kigo within their works.

In music
Japanese people view the sounds that insects produce as "soothing" or "comfortable". While Westerners percieve the sounds of insects as "noise" and processed through the right brain, Japanese people perceive insect sounds as a "voice" in the left brain.

Two sounds that feature heavily within the perception of insect sounds in Japan are the sounds of cicadas and bell crickets. Cicada emergence in Japan occurs during the summer, and is often associated with the season. The sound of cicada calls in unison is referred to as the "cicada drizzle", as the sound of harmonizing cicadas resembles the sounds of falling rain. The bell cricket's (Meloimorpha japonica) clear-sounding chirping cry during the autumn season has been described as giving a "refreshing feeling" to those listening. Capturing the bell cricket for the use of hearing their cries during the evening has been a cultural practice since ancient times.

Conservation
In 2003, Japan had 500 organizations dedication to the preservation of satoyama, mixed use human settlement and natural area in regions where mountains and flatlands intersect. There exists a high amount of biodiversity due to the lack of a monoculture, as most species cannot solely dominate the curated landscape. It is thought by Japanese entomologists Minoru Ishii and Yasuhiro Nakamura, that the preservation of satoyama would be crucial for the recovery of declining insect populations.

In popular culture
Monster collecting franchise Pokémon was inspired by its creator, Satoshi Tajiri's childhood hobby of collecting and capturing insects. Within the games themselves exist bug-inspired Pokémon.

Mothra, a gigantic moth monster appears prominently within the kaiju genre with films, is second to Godzilla in number of film appearances.

Plot
In the year 4001, an interstellar acting troupe of six aliens are trying to fly to their next performance, as they are doing so, they accidentally crash into another spaceship over the planet Anika and lead to the death of a human couple. As the acting troupe explores the downed craft, they discover that their baby survived the crash, the police officer sent to record the crash refuses to look after the baby. Thus the alien acting troupe take it upon themselves to take care of the orphaned child as her new family, through the guidance of the ship's logs to raise her in a way that her biological parents would. The acting troupe expects to only take care of the baby for a few weeks, but five years have elapsed since then, and the acting troupe has settled down into life on the planet Anika as Corona's family and friends. The leader, Mother, and battle robot, Father, play the roles of the baby, Corona's, mother and father. The story starts off as Corona is about to enter kindergarten.

The OVA is a self contained story split into four sections, and adapted from the manga's material. Transitioning between spring, summer, autumn, and winter, it highlights on the deep bonds that the alien acting troupe has grown and the genuine care they feel for Corona. When someone comes to pick up Corona, her adoptive mother struggles to decide between whether to do what is best for her child and her urge not to return her to her rightful family.

Development
The title of the series is a parody on Swiss Family Robinson. The "Carlvinson" portion of the title likely refers to the USS Carl Vinson, which was active in the Sea of Japan between the 1980s and 1990s. It was often seen in Tokyo harbor during the time Asari had drawn the manga. In turn, the aircraft carrier is named after U.S. congressman from Georgia Carl Vinson,  however it is unlikely that Asari was paying homage to the congressman, who was an active supporter of the US Navy during the Second World War, and rather simply having the name be a play on the similar sounding title.

Asari, a fan of the science fiction genre, inserted in-group references to contemporary films and other related forms of media. There exists speculation that Space Family Carlvinson is a reference to the series Lost in Space, which was previously Space Family Robinson. Additionally, there are references to other science fiction films such as John Carpenter's The Thing, and Fiend Without a Face.

According to historian Fred Patten, around the time of the animated OVA's release, the Cartoon/Fantasy Organization was undergoing a breakup, and thus the ensuing internal conflict resulted in a failure for the OVA to be brought to a wider audience in the United States.

Acting troupe/Saucer family

 * Corona (コロナ)

A human child whose parents died when they crashed into the acting troupe's spaceship. Rescued as a baby, as her parents protected her as their spaceship crashed and died doing so, the story skips ahead to when she is 5 years old. The acting troupe takes it upon themselves to raise and care for her as if they were her parents, waiting for someone of her own species to take care of her to arrive. Naturally inquisitive and naive, she cares a lot for her family.
 * Mother (おかあさん)

A fluffy mouse like alien. She is the leader of the travelling acting troupe, and decides that they should raise the orphaned child. She takes up the role as Corona's mother. She serves as the voice of reason within the group.
 * Father (おとうさん)

A robotic alien that consists of a detachable head and a interchangeable suit which hovers above the ground. He takes up the role as Corona's father. While stoic, he is also absentminded and easily hurt by Corona's frustrations. He has a mysterious past, and does not share it with the other members of his troupe, but was said to be a former soldier.
 * Belka (ベルカ)

A humanoid alien resembling an elf with animalistic features. She is extremely strong, and can shift into another form to perform feats of strength. Belka formerly worked as a mercenary and was rivals with Laika. Belka is extremely weak against heat, due to her home planet being cold and icy. She takes up the role of the sheriff of Anika.
 * Tah-Kun (ターくん)

An alien resembling a human's nervous system complete with a brain, which serves as his head. He is the heir to a great fortune, but ran away from home to join the acting troupe. When a butler is sent to retrieve him, he refuses, saying that he enjoyed his life in Anika. Tah-kun plays the role as Corona's pet squirrel, and as a result, often suffers from Corona's crude methods of having fun. His appearance is inspired by the 1958 film Fiend Without a Face.
 * Andy (アンディ)

An alien consisting of a single eye encased in a capsule with two robotic legs attached. He works as the owner of the general store on Anika, and is a shrewd businessman. An alien consisting of a huge oval shaped head and a singular eye with thin limbs. She is constantly with her arms raised in front of her, and does not speak at all. She is the love interest of the Anika native Jun. Her role within the acting troupe and in Anika is unknown.
 * Parker (パーカー)

Anika townspeople

 * Anika Natives (原住生物 (げんじゅうせいぶつ))

Black, squid like aliens, with two arms and four legs with yellow teardrop-shaped faces. They evolved from nautili and live in the mountains, but are unable to swim. They have kanji characters on their forehead that serve to differentiate between each of them, and all are modelled after film directors. They serve mostly as Corona's preschool classmates. Several are named, but 3 often show up: Jun (ジュン) (Nakahara), Kō (コー) (Mitsuzuka), and Jisso (ジッソー) (Kashiwakura). Jun, modelled after Junkichi Oki, a film director, is a hopeless romantic and has a crush on Parker. Ko enjoys fishing, and is modelled after Koichi Kawakita. Jisso, who has the habit of placing objects to obscure parts of his face, and is modelled after Akio Jissoji.
 * Ken (ケン)

A reptilian alien who is able to fly. He is wandering nomad who is sometimes involved with the antics of the locals. Belka's rival from her past as a mercenary, she is a blond haired alien with a irritable personality. Out to defeat Belka, she constantly fails, and lives with the Shovel Mouse. Laika holds immense power due to her heritage, and has wings and a tail. A dog-like alien with the uncanny ability to disembowel himself and detach his head. He is a movie buff in addition to being a film director, and works as the town's theatre owner. His character design and name is inspired by John Carpenter's The Thing. An elderly alien who consists of a single eye and cannot talk. She runs the local candy store.
 * Laika (ライカ)
 * John Carpenter (ジョン＝カーペンター)
 * Grandma (ばーさん)
 * Ms. Midori (ミドリ先生)

A mysterious humanoid woman alien with long dark hair who shows up for the purposes of becoming the town's kindergarten teacher. Her role in town is to run Anika's kindergarten as Corona's teacher. She is the candy store owner's niece. A koi fish-like alien who, in the spirit of Japanese folktales, became a dragon upon jumping over a waterfall. He inhabits the local swamp in Anika, and is able to transform into any form he wishes to, but is unable to transform into his idealized form if he is critiqued. An alien that resembles a mouse which constantly holds a shovel. He provides housing for Laika and enjoys to dig holes.
 * Taro (鯉の太郎)
 * Shovel Mouse (ショベル＝マウス)

Anime
Portions of the manga were adapted into a single 45-minute original video animation (OVA) and animation done by Doga Kobo. The screenplay was done by Michiru Shimada and it was directed by Kimio Yabuki. Corona was voiced by Mayumi Shō, her mother was voiced by Toshiko Fujita and her father was voiced by Tesshō Genda. The OVA features the opening theme "Ichiban Suteki na Love Song" (いちばんステキなラブソング) and the ending theme "Spring Song" (すぷりんぐ・そんぐ) both by Miwako Saito.

Manga
Space Family Carlvinson was republished multiple times to compile the three runs that the manga had. The following lists the manga volumes published by Kodansha.

Reception
Historian Fred Patten writing in Cartoon Research thought that the OVA "had the potential to be so much more" and ended too abruptly, praising its humor and quiet charm due to its combination of sci-fi elements with more mundane everyday elements. Mike Toole writing for Anime News Network described the OVA as "cute, simple, fun to watch" but also noted that it was "100% unmarketable to anyone who isn't either familiar with the comics or an adventuresome cartoon dork" and critiqued the OVA for having little substance. Jason Huff writing in The Anime Review described the style as simplistic but effective, and praised its emotional core and underlying themes. He critiqued its gentle comedy and short length leaving little to develop the secondary cast. Sean O'Mara writing for ZIMMERIT described Space Family Carlvinson as "charming if forgettable", stating that it "holds up better than it has any right to and [it is] easy to recommend".

Description
The practice involves standing upright on a bamboo pole as it drifts in a river. Practitioners then perform dance movements as they maintain their balance, the practice was described by "ballet on the water" by Yahoo! News. As a competitive sport, participants use the pole as a means to race opponents.

History
Single bamboo drifting originated as a way to travel in the Chishui River basin of Guizhou province. Initially a practice done by the Miao people in Guizhou province, which had inhabited the Chishui river basin region, the practice has spread beyond the Miao cultural sphere in modern times.

Yujuan Liang et al. and Chia Chi Cheng et al. state that the practice originated a thousand years ago as a way to transport bamboo logs by loggers inhabiting the mountainous and difficult to travel region, as bamboo was an ideal building material at the time. In order to stay caught up to the bamboo, the loggers would jump on the floating log, and the practice eventually became single bamboo drifting. The rivers, which made the region difficult to travel through, were used by the loggers to travel throughout the otherwise difficult to travel region through the practice of single bamboo drifting. Loggers would additionally carry a pike for the purposes of balancing.

According to Owen Fishwick at China Daily, the practice began in the Qin dynasty as a way to transport the valuable Nanmu wood logs produced in the Bozhou region via the Chishui River. Loggers would ride the logs to be loaded onto boats down the river to be sent to the ancient capital of Xianyang, as local boats could not fit the logs for transport elsewhere. The practice later changed from a necessity into a more casual activity in the Han dynasty. During the Qing dynasty, practitioners started using bamboo rather than wood logs, as bamboo was a cheaper and more accessible resource.

Modern practice
In modern times the practice has evolved into a performance art and a competitive sport, rather than as a necessary means of travel. The practice of single bamboo drifting has entered use within the National Traditional Games of Ethnic Minorities competition. The sport was introduced in the competition during the 9th national event, held in 2011. Practitioner Yang Liu gained a social media following in Mainland China through her combination of the practice with dance techniques and traditional dress.

Discovery
First known from Viking images as an anomalous albedo feature at the center of a crater, the deposit of ice was identified as such by Xie et al. in 2006 through analysis of Thermal Emission Imaging System (THEMIS) data. Xie et al., which used similar techniques to their predecessors who had determined similarly the existence of water ice on the Martian polar caps, additionally noted the seasonal fluctuation of the central ice mound between the Martian fall and summer.

Ice mound
Louth contains the lowest latitude permanent deposit of water ice on the Martian surface, in a mound situated at the crater's center. The mound contained within Louth crater's center is quasi-circular and has an approximate diameter of 10 kilometers (6.2 miles). The ice mound at the crater's center consists of smaller ice grains interspersed with more palagonite contaminant at its edge, compared to the ice mound's center. Large grains of ice at the ice mound's center suggests that the central portion is the oldest in age, and brought to the surface either through the sublimation of ice or aeolian processes.

Its low latitude compared to other Martian craters makes Louth and its ice mound the warmest perennial surface of ice on the Martian surface. Ice deposits on Mars serve as unique indicators for the climate variability on the Martian surface, due to their status as reservoirs for chemical compounds like Carbon dioxide and Water. Louth's southerly position of 70 degrees north latitude gives it a unique potential for sensitivity to climatic changes on Mars. The processes behind its long-term stability, especially at its southerly latitude is poorly understood. Following a study by Brown et al., Louth's inner ice mound was determined to be currently in retreat.

Etymology
In accordance to the naming conventions for smaller Martian craters, Louth is named after villages with a population less than 100,000 people. In this case, it is named after Louth, an Irish town with a population of 715. Louth's name was approved on February 7, 2007.

Larrakia flag
http://www.drbilldayanthropologist.com/resources/LARRAKIA%20FLAG%20HISTORY.pdf

Legislators
=Falcon Lake UFO Incident= elaborate on skepticism if published + books on the incident

The Falcon Lake Incident was an alleged UFO sighting on May 20, 1967 at Falcon Lake, within Whiteshell Provincial Park in the Canadian province of Manitoba. The incident was investigated by various Canadian authorities including the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, Royal Canadian Air Force, the Department of Health, Department of National Defence, and American authorities including the Aerial Phenomena Research Organization and the United States Air Force, as a part of the Condon Committee.

The incident has been dubbed "Canada's best-documented UFO case" by CBC News and "the world’s most documented UFO sighting" by Atlas Obscura.

Background
Stefan "Steve" Michalak resided with his family in River Heights, Winnipeg, and worked as an industrial mechanic. He also was an amateur geologist, and would regularly travel to Falcon Lake as a prospector searching for quartz and silver. Michalak was born at the end of the First World War, and participated within the Second World War as a young adult. He was a native to Poland, and previously had worked as a military policeman there within the Polish Home Army.

Michalak was married to Maria in 1946, but was separated from his wife for 10 years following his escape from Soviet-held Poland, reuniting in 1957. Maria was held at a concentration camp with her sister and mother for a period of their lives during the Second World War. First immigrating to Saskatchewan and working as a hired hand, he eventually relocated to Manitoba.

Michalak's claims
Michalak had previously staked a claim in the area to prospect for precious metals in the Falcon Lake area, and left home on the long weekend of May 1967. He was aware that quartz veins within the Precambrian portions of the Canadian Shield within Whiteshell Provincial Park yielded precious metals such as gold and nickel. Whilst inspecting a quartz vein embedded within the Canadian Shield strata, Michalak was startled by the sounds of a flock of geese who were agitated by an object.

According to Michalak, he looked up to see two cigar-shaped objects hovering 45 meters (around 150 feet) away from him and emitting a reddish glow. He would describe the objects as "cigarette-shaped things with humps in the middle." Michalak initially assumed the objects were American experimental aircraft. One of the objects landed on a nearby rocky platform, and took on a disk shape, while the other craft flew off after hovering in the air for several minutes. Michalak, while observing the landed craft, took time to sketch the object which landed in front of him for half an hour, before deciding to approach the craft. He attempted to find any identifying insignia; finding none, and observed that the craft noticeably lacked any seams and noted the metallic surface appeared smooth, resembling colored glass. It was 10.5 meters (35 feet) in length, and 4.5 meters (15 feet) in height. The landed craft also changed in color between grey and red, and resembled "hot stainless steel," with a golden glow emanating around the vehicle. Michalak recalled the scent of sulphur and the warm air emitted by the craft, and hearing the sounds of a whirring motor as well a hissing sound from air being expelled.

Michalak's Interactions
Michalak observed that the craft had an open door on its side with bright lights. Within the craft he could hear the voices of individuals which were muffled by the sounds produced. He remarked that the speakers sounded human, with two discernible voices, one higher than the other. Michalak initially attempted to communicated with the "Yankee boys" in English and offered mechanical support, assuming the pilots were experiencing mechanical difficulties, his exclamation subsequently silenced the previously talking he had previously heard. When he did not hear a response, Michalak attempted to communicate with the individuals in Polish, Russian, and finally German.

Michalak continued to interact with the craft despite the lack of a response and approached it, donning his pair of welding goggles as protection. Within the craft, Michalak claimed to have saw light beams and panels flashing various colors. The craft appeared empty, and as he walked away, three panels slid in to seal the craft. When he touched the craft, he found it so hot that the fingertips of his gloves melted.

The craft then turned counter-clockwise, revealing to Michalak a panel with a grid of holes. Subsequently, Michalak was struck in the chest by a blast of heated gas that burned Michalak and blew him backward, the heat of the exhaust set his clothing and hat on fire. He immediately tore the burning clothing off as the craft flew away.

Immediate aftermath
Disoriented from the event, feeling nauseous, and eventually vomiting, Michalak attempted to return to his motel room at the Falcon Motor Hotel. A nearby highway patrol officer from the RCMP, Constable G.A. Solotki, who had spotted Michalak assumed he was drunk, but did not smell alcohol on Michalak. Solotki's report indicated that he offered to help Michalak return and seek treatment at Falcon Beach, but was declined. According to Michalak's account, Solotki was dismissive of his situation and refused to offer him aid. He safely returned, talking with the owner of the motel if he could see a doctor, but was told that the local doctor was absent. Michalak then rested and told his wife that an accident had occurred, and that he would return to his home in Winnipeg by means of the Greyhound bus. Upon returning home, Michalak sought medical attention at the Misericordia Health Centre for his injuries, and was admitted to the emergency room.

Michalak experienced burns on his chest and stomach which matched with his claims of being hit by the exhaust panel. A grid-like pattern of raised sores from his burns appeared on Michalak's body. Michalak continued to suffer from prolonged bouts with diarrhea, headaches, blackouts, and continued weight loss, eventually seeking help from the Mayo Clinic. The Mayo Clinic's report determined that Michalak was of sound mind. His physical condition following the event was consistent with radiation poisoning, but tests administered at Pinawa, Manitoba following the incident came up negative. Michalak lost thirteen pounds following the incident, with his lymphocyte count drastically falling to near lethal levels. He continued to suffer from intermittent reappearances of his burns.

Michalak came forward with his story to The Winnipeg Tribune, which subsequently published his account under the title "I was burned by UFO".

Following the incident
Michalak passed away in 1999 and reportedly still believed the UFO was an experimental aircraft, having never claimed the craft he witnessed was of alien origin. Michalak grew weary of the intense media scrutiny on his personal life and shyed away from interviews during the initial surge, writing in a manuscript that he attempted to break off contact with the outside world, Michalak reportedly regretted telling the story to the wider public. The turmoil surrounding the event caused Michalak to experience domestic problems, with his wife Maria struggling to aid him following the traumatic event. Maria continued to voice reluctance in coming forward talking about the story with media, Michalak's son Stan Michalak has worked with individuals interested in the sighting following his father's passing.

The incident was featured in Unsolved Mysteries Season 5, Episode 8. Michalak was interviewed on his account, and the incident was reenacted with actors.

In 2010, singer-songwriter Jim Bryson published The Falcon Lake Incident which was recorded in a cottage at Falcon Lake, named after the incident.

Fifty years after the incident, Michalak's son, Stan Michalak with the aid of UFOlogist Chris Rutkowski, published  When They Appeared—Falcon Lake 1967: The Inside Story of a Close Encounter which compiled the Falcon Lake Incident according to eyewitness testimony.

In 2018, in commemoration of the event, the Royal Canadian Mint issued a $20 non-circulating silver coin featuring the incident as a part of its Canada's Unexplained Phenomena series of coins. The commemorative coin was illustrated by Joel Kimmel. In line with Michalak's reports, the coin glows in the dark with beams emanated from the craft's underside. It is the first coin of its type to feature glow in the dark elements. On the front side, the coin depicts Queen Elizabeth II, while the back's illustration depicts Michalak falling to the ground from an exhaust blast in the Manitoba wilderness while a UFO hovers above him. Only 4000 copies of the coin exist, and initially sold at the retail price of $129.95.

Documents collected pertaining to the incident were donated to the University of Manitoba Archives in 2019, along with Michalak's burned articles of clothing from the incident.

Falcon Beach Ranch, a ranch operating nearby to the site of the alleged encounter, offers a "UFO Tour" for those wishing to visit the area.

Investigation
Following the publication of Michalak's ordeal, he was questioned by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, representatives of the Royal Canadian Air Force, and other representatives of government agencies, as well as various members of the public and media which were interested in hearing in Michalak's account. While initially dismissive, the search intensified with helicopters combing the area. Aiding in the investigation, various agencies including the Department of Health, Department of National Defence, joined with the RCMP and RCAF in the search. American teams, including the Aerial Phenomena Research Organization and the United States Air Force, as a part of the Condon Committee, joined as well. Michalak was unable to assist in the initial search, having been so ill that he was unable to consume solid food. He was later able to assist with investigators as his health slowly recovered.

Initial conclusions assumed that Michalak was hallucinating as a result of alcohol consumption. The investigation by the United States Air Force concluded in an inconclusive result, both the RCMP and Canadian Armed Forces reports on the incident similarly yielded inconclusive results. The RCMP report emphasized their inability to explain Michalak's physical effects, burns, and the burned circle of vegetation from the site.

There exists a substantial amount of publications from the ensuing investigation which exist within the public record. These include: RCMP and RCAF reports on the case held within the national archives, the United States Air Force file on the incident, as well as the Mayo Clinic correspondence by physicians attending to Michalak.

Analysis of the site yielded unusual results, including a 4.5 meter (15 feet) circle of burned vegetation in the site Michalak claimed the landing occurred, and the presence of highly radioactive elements within soil samples and clothing Michalak had removed. Metal that was superheated was found to have been melted into cracks of rock and exhibited high levels of radioactivity. The anomalous readings were reportedly due to a radium vein which was subsequently uncovered nearby.

Skeptical reaction
Skeptics to the Falcon Lake UFO Incident believe that Michalak's burns were as a result of an accident stemming from alcohol use, and that his claim was in order to hide their cause. In reporting the incident, Michalak would potentially dissuade any competitors from prospecting in his site. The subsequent frenzy by the public and media caused the reverse effect however, with numerous individuals descending upon the site. The pieces of melted radioactive metal were believed by skeptics of the case to have been planted following the incident to solidify the hoax.

Background
Raven and the First Men depicts the creation myth of the Haida people. According to the myth, the Raven wound up on Haida Gwaii's Rose Spit Beach. He was alerted by some sounds to a large clamshell that had little creatures dwelling inside, reluctant to emerge from their shell. With some coaxing from Raven using his beak, and their curiosity about the outside world, the beings emerged from the clamshell to become the first Haida people.

Raven came to realize that the beings that emerged were only men. He grew bored of seeing them play and exploring the world. Raven attempted to find women for the men within the clam. Finding a chiton, he opened one up and found little women living within them. He brought the women to the men, and enjoyed watching them and their behavior. They began to elope and move across to the other parts of the island. Raven never grew bored again with the humans and their families around.

Creation
Reid began the sculpture with a miniature carving made of boxwood, the piece was inspired by the works of Haida artist Charles Edenshaw. Businessman Walter Koerner noticed the miniature and commissioned Reid to create a larger version in 1973 for his Museum of Anthropology. Another scale version of the sculpture made in onyx exists and both carvings are held in the Bill Reid Gallery of Northwest Coast Art. The miniature was later auctioned off in 2005 for over $100,000.

Work proved difficult, as a singular block of red cedar log was difficult to find without imperfection. 2.1 meter blocks found difficult to find because of the presence of rot and defects. A donation by Rayonier Canada of multiple yellow cedar beams which were laminated together with the assistance of Koppers International.

Carving began in the fall of 1978, the initial roughing of the shape was done with the assistance of Gidansda Guujaaw and George A. Norris. The men within the clamshell were carved by George Rammell and the final tool finishing being done by Reg Davidson and Jim Hart.

Reception
Charles, Prince of Wales unveiled the Raven and the First Men on April 1, 1980. The sculpture was celebrated by the Haida people and their guests in June 5, 1980.

It has since become a popular attraction to the visitors of the museum. Raven and the First Men was featured on the Canadian twenty-dollar bill in the Canadian Journey series of bills from 2004 to 2011. "Many experience delight while others are awed by the hovering supernatural Raven. Their responses affirm the power of Northwest Coast art to touch the emotions of people from different cultures."

Discovery
Rafflesia lawangensis was first described in Volume 13 of the Journal Reinwardtia in 2010. The first description was written by K. Mat-Salleh, Ridha Mahyuni, Agus Susatya, and J.F. Veldkamp. The location of Bohorok, Bukit Lawang, was previously thought to be a possible habitat for Rafflesia plants, judging by similar floristic composition to the area of Lokop. Eventually, reports of Rafflesia plants in the area of Bohorok were noted, and were erroneously referred as members of Rafflesia arnoldii. However, there was no physical material in herbariums, nor photographs taken of the plant. This was until 2005, when Ewa Kamila Grzelczak photographed an unusual Rafflesia from Bukit Lawang. The photograph was sent to the National University of Malaysia, where it was determined to be neither of the previously assumed species, but rather a new species altogether. It was one of three newly discovered species of Rafflesia found in Indonesia after the 1997 treatment of the genus in Flora Malesiana.

Description
The mature male bud has a diameter of 29-30 cm. The diameter of the fully blooming female flower is between 58-63 cm. The petals of the flower, known as the perigone lobes, are 24-25x19-25 cm. The plant is mostly is dark orange to reddish brown in colour, with reddish white warts with a short and dense covering of hair. The diaphragm, an aperture at the top of the flower, is ring-shaped and with a width of 6 cm and a diameter of 31-33 cm. The relative size of the plant's diaphragm opening is considered the widest among the species of Rafflesia found in Sumatra, at over 80% of the flower's diameter, and comparable to R. leonardi from Luzon. The pollen of R. lawangensis is larger in comparison to other larger-flowered members of the same genus such as R. keithii and R. kerrii.

Rafflesia lawangensis was misidentified as Rafflesia arnoldii var. arnoldii or Rafflesia arnoldii var atjehensis. It is similar to Rafflesia kerrii, with both plants having a very wide diaphragm, a bowl like structure at the center of the flower which opens up to the reproductive structures. It is distinct from R. arnoldii by the presence of fine hairs on the surface of the perigone lobes, the flower's "petals". The flowers of R. lawangensis are also smaller than those of R. arnoldii, and the shape and color of the warts. The range of the plant overlaps with two other related species, R. micropylora and R. rochusenii, but can be easily distinguished from the two, in addition to other species found in Sumatra.

Distribution
The species is known only in a single locality, Bukit Lawang, in North Sumatra's Mount Leuser National Park. It is a parasite of the plant Tetrastigma coriaceum.

Etymology
The specific epithet refers to the type locality of R. lawangensis, Bukit Lawang.

Description
Rafflesia meijeri was first described by Harry Wiriadinata and Rismita Sari in 2010. They published their discovery in the journal Reinwardtia entitled "A new species of Rafflesia (Rafflesiaceae) from North Sumatra". Only male plants were able to be obtained at the type locality at the time of its discovery.

The male flower has a width of 13-14 cm and a height of 5-6 cm. The mature bud has a diameter between 9-10 cm. The petals, known as the perigone lobes, are coarse and brick colored. The lobes are 5-6 x 3.7-4.5 cm in size. The perigone tube, a fused section of the petals resembling a bowl, has a height of 4.5-5 cm and a width of 9-10 cm. The ramenta, interior scales, are filiform, or hair-like, rather than the swollen ramenta of Rafflesia rochussenii.

This species is similar to the related Rafflesia rochussenii in its morphology. Both flowers lack the processes, tentacle-like stamens, on the disc that many other flowers in the same genus have. R. rochussenii is known from West Java, while R. meijeri is known from North Sumatra. The two species differ not only because of their geographic separation, but additionally the two species display some differing morphological characteristics. R. meijeri differs by its patterning of the warts on the perigone lobe, or the "petals" of the flower. The warts of R. meijeri are irregular in patterning rather than regular. It additionally differs the morphology of the ramenta, scales on the interior of the flower. The tip of the ramenta for R. rochussenii is swollen, compared to the filiform ramenta of R. meijeri. Further genetic research is needed to determine if R. meijeri is indeed a separate species, as members of the genus show plasticity in their morphologies.

Distribution
Rafflesia meijeri is known from a single location, Sicikeh-Cikeh, a nature park near Laehole Village, North Sumatra. Another source lists it being found west of Lake Toba in Parbuluan.

Habitat
Rafflesia meijeri is found in hilly secondary forest with a terrain of moderately steep slopes. The plant is found at an elevation of 1320 m. It was also found in disturbed primary forest alongside members of the plant families Fabaceae, Fagaceae, Lauraceae, Rubiaceae, Zingiberaceae, among others.

Etymology
Rafflesia meijeri is named after Willem Meijer, a researcher who studied Rafflesia plants. Meijer died in 2003 and the name of R. meijeri honours his contributions to the plant's study and conservation.

Description
The genus Temenis is a member of the tribe Epiphilini, of the subgenus Biblidinae. The type species is Papilio merione, a former synonym of Temenis laothoe. It is closely related to butterflies in the genera Epiphile and Nica, only distinguished from one another due to morphological differences in the larval stage. Previously, the genus was considered close to the genera Epiphile, as well as Catonephele, Cybdelis, Myscelia, Pseudonica, and Pyrrhogyra in a group dubbed the "Catonephelinae" by Ebert.

There are three members that consist of the genus, the members of which can be differentiated through differences in wing patterning and structure. Temenis laothoe is the most recognizable member of the genus, and has a range that stretches from Mexico to Bolivia, making contrasting with it more straightforward. T. pulchra, compared with T. laothoe, has much more rounded wings along with two pinkish red diagonal bands running from the leading edge of the wing all the way to the posterior corner of the wing. T. huebneri has a similar wing shape to T. laothoe but is dark brown in color and has a broad orange band across the forewings as well as orange colored hindwings.

A 2014 proposal by Lucy Mila Garcia Salik proposes splitting the genus further, based on morphological differences, with the new genera Temenis hondurensis, Temenis pallidior, and Temenis violetta. Salik proposes the following phylogenetic tree with regards to the placement of Temenis in the Epiphilini, using implicit weighing analysis:

Newick format: "(Eunica (Callicore (Haematera + Lucinia) (Callicorina + Asterope) (Pyrrhogyra (Nica + Peria) (Bolboneura (Temenis + Epiphile))))))))))"

Life history
The larvae are associated with and feed on plants in the family Sapindaceae, like other members of the Biblidinae, such as members of the genera Cardiospermum, Paullinia, Serjania, and Urvillea. Members of the genus are poisonous as a result of the sequestration of toxic compounds consumed during the larval stage by plants in the Sapindaceae family. The eggs of memers of the genus Temenis tend to be more flattened compared to their relatives. Larvae tend to mimic bird droppings or camoflage in with their surroundings, with the pupae blending with the surrounding leaves.

Unlike the "flash and hide effect" that some related butterflies employ, members of the genus Temenis are rather conspicuous compared to the background vegetation. The butterflies do tend to fly faster than other butterflies that are considered distasteful, but also lack the dimorphism and mimicry complexes that other related butterflies engage in. The adult butterflies frequent gaps in the forest to visit Sapindaceae vines despite being found in the canopy, they also frequently visit the ground level to feed on rotting fruits. Temenis laothoe was identified one of the most abundant butterflies in the Yasuni National Park of Ecuadorian Amazonia.

Distribution
Members of the genus Temenis are found throughout Central and South America. Temenis laothoe has a range that stretches from Mexico to Northern Argentina. Temenis pulchra has a range between Central America and the Andes. Temenis huebneri has a range that is confined to the northern and southeastern portions of Brazil's Atlantic Forest.

Taxonomy
Temenis contains the following species:

Taxonomy
Thomas Cheeseman first published Celmisia major description in Manual of the New Zealand Flora in 1925. Celmisia major is split into two different variations, var. major and var. brevis. It is part of a poorly resolved species complex consisting of various members of the genus Celmisia in New Zealand. C. major var. major is thought to be more similar to two other daisies, Celmisia adamsii var. rugulosa, which seems to be a heterotypic synonym of Celmisia graminifolia, than it is to var. brevis. Peter James de Lange remarks that var. brevis is "certainly not close close to var. major" and he stressed further critical study on the matter of the two daisies and their relations to one another.

Description
Celmisia major var. brevis can be differentiated by var. major by its smaller size and its more open and weakly developed pseudo-involucre, var. brevis is also range restricted on Mount Taranaki.

var. brevis
Celmisia major var. brevis is a small herb with tufted leaves that emerge from a simple or branched root system. The leaves are narrow and grass like but leathery in texture, the upper surface of the leaves are a darker silvery green in color and are marked with parallel grooves. The leaves are hairy and the edges of the leaf are curved backwards. The scape, or the flower stem, ranges from hairy to smooth. The upper bracts of the plant are developed into a pseudo-involucre. The flower head is 20-40 mm in diameter. The flowers are yellow and white in colour, they flower betweeen the months of October and February, and start fruiting between the months of November and April.

A short lived plant it is described as one of the few members of the genus Celmisia who do well in cultivation. It grows well from fresh seed and does well in a semi-shaded site with moist and free-draining soil. It does not prefer humidity.

var. major
Celmisia major var. major is a tufted herb. The leaves are 100-400 mm in length and 5-20 mm in width. They are narrow and long, lance shaped. The leaves are leathery in texture and have a dark green upper surface, with an often fractured skin, leaving the leaves with a silvery green mottled appearance. The underside of the leaves are hairy and silvery white. The flower stem is also hairy, the flower head is 20-40 mm in diameter. The flower head is white and yellow, the plant flowers from the months of August to February, with its peak at October to November. The plant begins to fruit between the months of October to May, but with a peak in December.

The plant is easy to sow from seeds or through dividing the plants. The plant prefers moist soil with sunlight and no weeds.

var. brevis
Celmisia major var. brevis is endemic to Mount Taranaki, formerly known as Mount Egmont.

var. major
Celmisia major var. major is found on New Zealand's North Island. It is found in West Auckland, from Muriwai to Cornwallis, as well as the islands of Aiguilles Island, Great Barrier Island, where it may be extinct, and Kaikōura Island.

var. brevis
The plant is found in the alpine and subalpine herbfields of Mount Taranaki.

var. major
The plant is strictly found on the coast. It is found on rock headlands, cliff faces, and islets, and occaisonally on coastal shrublands. The plant grows on low turf on soils consisting of peat or silt. The plant grows in association with plants in the genera Disphyma, Samolus, and Tetragonia.

var. brevis
It is currently ranked as "At Risk – Naturally Uncommon" after a 2009 review, and this designation was renewed in a 2012 review. It was previously designated "Range Restricted" in a 2004 review by the New Zealand Threat Classification System.

The plant is naturally uncommon, as it is only found in the Mount Taranaki National Park. Despite its small and restriced range, it is abundant where it is actually found.

var. major
Celmisia major var. major is currently ranked as "At Risk-Naturally Uncommon" following a 2012 review by the New Zealand Threat Classification System. It was first given this designation in 2009, having previously been assesed at "Gradual Decline" in 2004.

It is threatened by habitat encroachment by invasive species as well as threats from coastal erosion. Since the daisy is found in sites with heavy foot traffic, the plants have been trampled by individuals seeking to access popular headland and shore inlet sightseeing sites. Overcollecting also serves as a factor in decline. The plant is scarce on Great Barrier Island, only being found in a single location.

Etymology
The generic epithet is derived from Kelmis, a mythical Dactyl from Mount Ida. Kelmis, whose name meant "casting" was a friend of Zeus, and was a blacksmith. Ovid's Metamorphoses described Kelmis as offending Zeus enough that he had transformed Kelmis into Adamant. The specific epithet means "greater" in Latin. While "brevis" means "short" in Latin.

Taxonomy
Cirsium funkiae was discerned as a separate species by Jennifer Ackerfield, head curator at the Denver Botanic Gardens. Ackerfield was cautious not to use the term "discovered", cautious that it was possible that local Indigenous peoples had already discerned the species prior to her description. Ackerfield had began studying the thistles in 2016 as a part of her PhD. studies. Governor of Colorado Jared Polis would later highlight the thistle's discovery on his Twitter. The funky thistle was the first described living organism in the year of 2022 found in the Rocky Mountain Region.

It was formerly thought of for over 150 years as the same as the species Cirsium scopulorum, the mountain thistle. Specimens of both the funky and mountain thistle would be mislabeled under the same designation until it was separated. Through molecular, geographic, and morphological analysis, it was deemed that the mountaintop thistle Cirsium eatonii was polyphyletic and therefore should be split. The species complex that was Cirsium eatonii would be split several ways in 2020, re-instating former genera C. clokeyi, C. murdockii, C. peckii, and C. tweedyi, as well as creating the genera C. harrisonii and C. viperinum. In addition, '' C. eatonii var. eriocephalum was additionally polyphyletic, and renamed Cirsium scopulorum''. The original description for scopulorum described a "yellow corolla", but was in the geographic region of the pale purple variety. Additional notes stated that the flowers were possibly too young and thus unable to tell the color of the corolla in the first place. The pale purple variety thus recieved the designation of scopulorum, leaving the yellow variety undescribed. Five species were separated from the former C. scopulorum complex. Cirsium culebraensis, C. funkiae, C. griseum, C. hesperium, and C. scopulorum. Two of which were new to science, C. funkiae and C. culebraensis. Discoveries of plants such as C. funkiae can help researchers determine climate change induced affects on species distribution and interaction.

Description
The funky thistle is a hairy perennial herb that grows up to 3 ft in height. The plant has yellow branches with pale yellow flowers that turn brown with age that grow in fuzzy clusters. The leaves are oblong or narrowly elliptic and undulate. The leaves are pinnately divided and are 8-25 cm in length and 1.5-3.5 cm in width. The leaves range from smooth to hairy in texture. The seeds are dark brown or grayish brown in color, and are 4-6 mm in length. It flowers from mid-July until late-August, the plant begins to fruit from mid-August to early September. Jennifer Ackerfield, its discoverer, would describe it as the "funkiest of all new thistles". Ackerfield described the coloration of the style branches, corolla, and the head position (whether erect or nodding), as the best characteristics toward identifying the alpine thistles in the Southern Rocky Mountains. The style branches are yellow in color. The corolla is pale yellow in color, turning brown as it ages. The anther tube is white in color, alternatively pale yellow with brown stripes. The flower head grows in a nodding, terminal cluster. The thistle differs from the similar Cirsium scopulorum in its style branches being yellow rather than white, pale pink, or purple, but similar due to their nodding terminal arrangement of the heads.

The large plants serve as food sources for a variety of pollinators in its habitat. The plant is visited by bumblebees (Bombus sp.), who often overnight in the fuzzy flowerheads to stay warm. The leaves are often foraged by the American pika (Ochotona princeps) during the months of August and September.

Range
The type specimen was collected at the base of Mount Sherman in Pike National Forest. The funky thistle is found on the mountaintops on the Sangre de Cristo Range, Mosquito Range, and Tenmile Range in central and southern Colorado. Its range extends as far north as Breckenridge, Colorado and as far south as Santa Fe, New Mexico, where it exists as an isolated population.

Habitat
The plant grows in higher elevations above the tree line. It occurs in high-elevation spruce and fir forests and alpine tundra. Primarily found growing in alpine meadows, boulder fields, or rocky scree slopes. In lower elevations, it grows in association with Bistorta bistortoides, Picea engelmannii, Potentilla pulcherrima, and Sibbaldia procumbens. In rocky slopes and meadows, it grows in association with: Cirsium griseum, Carex scopulorum, Castilleja miniata, Castilleja occidentalis, Claytonia megarhiza, Geum rossii, Senecio atratus, Senecio fremontii, Polemonium confertum, and Trifolium dasyphyllum. In its highest elevated points in its distribution on scree slopes, it is often the only species of plant found, or it can be found in association with Senecio soldanella. One specimen that was collected was growing in a rocky tundra environment alongside Cerastium beeringianum, Heuchera parviflora, Pentaphylloides floribunda, and Trifolium dasyphyllum.

Conservation
The funky thistle is safe from many threats due a combination of its its alpine distribution which make accessing the thistle difficult, as well as its distribution in primarily federally owned land. The populations are currently thought to be stable. The thistle can be threatened by members of the public who assume the thistle is an invasive species and thus uproot the plant and leave it on the side of hiking trails to prevent its spread.

Etymology
The specific epithet honors Vicki Funk, who had passed away in 2019 and just before the study was completed, and was Jennifer Ackerfield's mentor. The name was chosen to honor her work in the field of Compositae research at the Smithsonian Institution and to highlight her position of leadership and as a world leader in the study. Funk was known for having a funky personality, and Ackerfield remarked that Funk would have a special tune that she would sing when was pricked by a thistle she was collecting, "Ooh Eeh Ooh Ah Aah Ting Tang Walla Walla Bing Bang" (Ross Bagdasarian's Witch Doctor), and that she wanted to honor the "funkiest of all thistles" in her honor. Ackerfield described the plant's dense mass of noddy wooly heads as "funky indeed".

Taxonomy
Pulchrocladia retipora is a member of the family Cladoniaceae. The lichen was first described as Baeomyces reteporus by Jacques Labillardière, collected while he was a naturalist for the Bruni d'Entrecasteaux expedition. He had first collected the lichen in 1792, and published the description in Novae Hollandiae Plantarum Specimen in 1806, describing the lichen as an alga. The lichen was the first Australian lichen to be described in a scientific publication. It has been known by the synonyms Cladia retipora and Cladonia retipora, among others. Several sources continue to refer to the lichen by its synonym of Cladia retipora.

The genus Pulchrocladia, including P. retipora, along with P. corallaizon and P. ferdinandii, was separated from the remainder of the genus Cladia by S. Stenroos and associates during a 2018 review of the family Cladoniaceae. S. Stenroos et al. separated Pulchrocladia on the basis of the lichen's differing morphology and chemistry. Differing from members of the genus Cladia because of its thick, tall, and yellow pseudopodetia, an elongated thallus that resembles the podetium, described as "richly fenestrate and reticulate", and also producing usnic acid and atranorin. As well as being separate from the newly created genus Rexia by the inner medulla, which is reticulate and stranded, and the presence of atranorin with the absence of divaricatic acid. P. retipora is the type species for the genus Pulchrocladia.

It is commonly known as the coral lichen, lace lichen, or the snow lichen.

Distribution
The coral lichen is found throughout New Zealand. On North Island, it ranges from Northland to as far south as Wellington. On South Island, it is found from Nelson to Southland. It is also found on the Auckland Islands, Campbell Islands, Chatham Islands, and Stewart Island. It is also found on New Caledonia, Southeastern Australia, in the states of New South Wales, Queensland, Tasmania, Victoria, the Australian Capital Territory, as well as Antarctica. There are additional records in Western Australia.

Habitat
The coral lichen is particularly common in subalpine peat bogs, it is often found in association with the lichens Cladonia confusa, Rexiella sullivani, and Stereocaulon ramulosum. It is found on peaty soils, found among tussocks or in heaths composing of Dracophyllum and Leptospermum, at the margins of Nothofagus forests, in fellfield, or rarely on surfaces such as rocks, logs, and sand dunes.

Conservation
Pulchrocladia retipora is listed as Not Threatened by the New Zealand Threat Classification System, citing 2010 and 2018 assesment reports by de Lange et al., which listed it as Not Threatened both times.

Taxonomy
Ptychandra was described in 1861 by Cajetan von Felder and Rudolf Felder. The type species is Ptychandra lorquinii.

Niklas Wahlberg as part of The Nymphalidae Systematics Group considers Ptychandra in the subtribe Lethina in the Satyrini.

Description
Males sport an iridescent blue-purple upperside wings with sometimes white or blueish subapical or antemarginal markings. The underside of the wings are brown in color, with marbled patterning of a darker brown, in addition to wavy transverse lines in the discal area. Some species sport silvery lines on their wing undersides. The underside sport a series of submarginal ocelli between the wing cells R5 to 1A + 2A. The R5 cell often larger and inwardly displaced. The curbital branches of the forewing are displaced by modified scales which are covered by a Hair-pencil between veins CuA1 and M3, with the exception of Ptychandra schadenbergi, and a hair pencil pouched between veins CuA1 and CuA2 one third of the length of the wing and found in the interneural furrow, with the exception of P. talboti. The eyes of the butterfly are hairy, as are the palpi on the second segment. Antennae are half the length of the costa. The butterfly exhibits tibial spurs. The forewing cell of the male is one third of the length of the costa. Vein M3 is colinear with the lower discocellular vein. The median discocellular vein is almost straight between the origins for veins M2 and M3, slightly angled towards the origin of vein M2. This makes it meet with the lower discocellular vein, at an approximate right angle with it. The origins of both the subcostal and cubital veins are both slightly swollen at the base, and the anal vein is slightly less swollen. The hindwing cell is closed and is around half the length of the wing. The vein Sc + R1 is slightly inflated towards the humeral vein. The M3 vein extends past the margin of the wing to form a tail, with lobes at the edges of veins CuA1 and CuA2 for some species. The origins for veins CuA1 and M2 are separated from each other.

Female Ptychandra butterflies have a light brown wing upperside, with white or whitish patterns as well as a broad white subapical band on the forewing. The underside of the wings are brown and marked with darker brown wavy lines. There are submarginal ocelli akin to the males, but often larger in size. The wing venation resembles the male butterflies, with displaced cubital branches despite the lack of any brands of pouches that the males have. The females' bodies are similar to the males, but with antennae shorter than the length of the forewing.

Distribution
A majority of the species in Ptychandra are found in the Philippines, with the remainder being found in Borneo. Five of the seven then known species are found in the Philippine archipelago, an additional species being found in Palawan, and the final species being found in Northern Borneo.

Ptychandra leucogyne is found on the islands of Camiguin de Luzon, Cebu, Leyte, Luzon, Masbate, Mindanao, Negros, Panay, Samar, and Sibuyan. P. lorquinii is found on Basilan, Biliran, Bohol, Camiguin de Luzon, Leyte, Luzon, Marinduque, Mindanao, Mindoro, Palawan, Samar, Sarangani, and Siargao. Both P. mizunumai and P. nakamotoi are found on Mount Apo in Mindanao. P. negrosensis is found on Bohol, Masbate, Negros, and West Panay. P. ohtanii is found on Leyte, Eastern Mindanao, and Sarangani. P. schadenbergi is found on Basilan and Mindanao. P. talboti is found on Sarawak's Mount Dulit, in addition to Mount Kinabalu in Sabah.

Species
There are six species of the genus Ptychandra found in the Philippines, with Badon and Nyuda listing Ptychandra mindorana Semper, 1892 as a distinct species. Funet recognizes eight total species in the genus, this interpretation is backed up by Wahlberg's species list:

• Ptychandra leucogyne C. & R. Felder, [1867]

• Ptychandra lorquinii C. & R. Felder, 1861

• *Ptychandra lorquinii bazilana Fruhstorfer, 1899

• *Ptychandra lorquinii boholensis Okano & Okano, 1989

• *Ptychandra lorquinii lorquinii C. & R. Felder, 1861

• *Ptychandra lorquinii mindorana Semper, 1892

• *Ptychandra lorquinii plateni Semper, 1892

• Ptychandra mizunumai Hayashi, 1978

• Ptychandra nakamotoi Hayashi, 1978

• Ptychandra negrosensis Banks, Holloway & Barlow, 1976

• *Ptychandra negrosensis negrosensis Banks, Holloway & Barlow, 1976

• *Ptychandra negrosensis angelalcalai Badon & Nuyda, 2020

• Ptychandra ohtanii Hayashi, 1978

• *Ptychandra ohtanii lizae Hayashi, 1978

• *Ptychandra ohtanii ohtanii Hayashi, 1978

• Ptychandra schadenbergi Semper, 1886

• Ptychandra talboti Hobby, 1940 — Bornean satyr

Taxonomy
Anaea was formerly considered as one of the largest butterfly genera. At its peak, it contained over 225 different species of butterflies. The genus had formerly contained almost all members of the subfamily Charaxinae found in the Neotropical realm. The butterfly genus was described as being "a fauna that far outstrips anything comparable elsewhere", having "commanded the admiration of even the most gold-mad conquistadores". The type species for the genus is Anaea troglodyta, described by Johan Christian Fabricius in 1775 as Papilio troglodyta in Systema entomologiae.

The genus Anaea is sometimes recognized as a monotypic genus consisting solely of Anaea troglodyta. The Integrated Taxonomic Information System, citing Johnathan P. Pelham's 2008 A catalogue of the butterflies of the United States and Canada with a complete bibliography of the descriptive and systematic literature lists three species: A. aidea, A. andria, and A. troglodyta.

Life history
The genus Anaea is associated with its host plant being members of the genus Croton. A. aidea feeds on Croton humilis, A. andria feeds on Croton monanthogynus and Croton texensis, and A. troglodyta feeds on Croton linearis.

The butterflies show variable seasonal forms depending on emergence, with both wet (winter) and dry (summer) season forms.

Distribution
The butterflies are found throughout the Central and Southern portions of North America. Anaea aidea is found from Costa Rica and north into Mexico. It can stray north into the United States, as far north as the state of Kansas. Anaea andria is found throughout the Eastern and Southern United States, in the states of Alabama, Arizona, Arkansas, Colorado, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana, Nebraska, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, New Mexico, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and Wyoming. It can stray into Mexico and Southern Canada (Ontario). It is listed as "Critically Imperiled" in Virginia, and "Vulnerable" in Indiana according to NatureServe's conservation status. Anaea troglodyta is found on the southern portion of peninsular Florida and the Florida Keys, as well as most of the Caribbean, including: the Cayman Islands, Cayman Islands, Cuba, Hispaniola, Lesser Antilles, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands. NatureServe and the National Park Service lists subspecies floridalis as being restricted to Long Pine Key in Everglades National Park.

Discovery
First photographed by an Australian ornithologist named Greg Kerr, who originally found the swallowtail on the island of Vanua Levu's Natewa Peninsula at the site of a former logging track. Kerr's photograph was circulated among researchers who could not identify the butterfly from his observation. Its discovery was noted as remarkable by John Tennent, a scientific associate working at the Natural History Museum, London, due to the showy appearance of the butterfly compared to the other related butterflies in the Pacific region. The butterfly seemingly did not match with what was known about the diversity of butterflies in the wider Pacific region. The butterfly's discovery was described as a "once-in-a-lifetime discovery", Tennent himself described the discovery as "easily the most spectacular" of the butterflies that he had described. Tennent led the first expedition to find more individuals of Papilio natewa, of which allowed the proper description of the butterfly as a distinct species. Tennent published the first description of the butterfly in the journal Nachrichten des Entomologischen Vereins Apollo.

Taxonomy
Genetic analysis suggests a close relative of Papilio natewa is Papilio anactus found in Australia.

Description
Papilio natewa has a wingspan of 8 cm. Two elongated tails project from its hindwings. At the top of the forewings marks a striking black and white zigzag pattern. Underneath there is a cream and black speckled pattern. Additionally, blue eyespots and a soft yellow color marks the wings.

Distribution
Papilio natewa is found on the island of Vanua Levu in the country of Fiji. It is one of three species of swallowtail butterfly found in the region, alongside Papilio schmeltzi (Fiji), and Papilio godeffroyi (Samoa).

Habitat
The swallowtail's habitat was presumed as to why it was left undiscovered for quite some time. Papilio natewa inhabits forests at an elevation of 250 m.

Threats and conservation
The Natewa swallowtail is currently listed as Vulnerable as per the IUCN Red List 3.1. Conservation efforts by the inhabitants of Natewa, Fiji in the form of the Nambu Conservation Trust, aided by Operation Wallacea, currently works to preserve the forest habitat of Papilio natewa.

The IUCN listed threats to its habitat such as logging and the harvest of wood, the harvest of crops, and wood and pulp plantations.

Etymology
Papilio natewa is named after the Natewa Peninsula in Fiji.

Description
Erasmia pulchella belongs to the burnet moth family Zygaenidae. A moderately large moth, its wings are covered in brightly colored and iridescent patterns that serve as aposematic deterrence. This is due to the toxic nature of the moth, as its body contains hydrogen cyanide throughout all life stages. The moths are diurnal, and visit flowers during the day. Adult moths use their proboscis to drink flower nectar. At rest, the moth's hindwings are covered by their forewings, which rest overtop the hindwings when closed.

Taxonomy
Erasmia pulchella was described by Frederick William Hope in 1841 in Transactions of the Linnean Society of London. The type specimen was obtained in Assam, India. It is the type species for the genus Erasmia.

It is divided into 6 subspecies.


 * Erasmia pulchella chinensis Jordan, 1907
 * Erasmia pulchella fritzei Jordan, 1907
 * Erasmia pulchella hobsoni Butler, 1889
 * Erasmia pulchella kumageana Inoue, 1975
 * Erasmia pulchella nipponica Inoue, 1976
 * Erasmia pulchella sakishimana Inoue, 1976

Distribution
Erasmia pulchella is found throughout Southern and Eastern Asia. Ranging from Northern India, and into Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, and China. Its distribution extends as far east as Taiwan and Japan.

Description
Mimaporia is a genus of Epicopeiid moths, known for engaging in mimicry complexes with other lepidopterans. Mimaporia is no exception, in this case, the moth mimics members of the families Nymphalidae and Pieridae. With M. hmong known for engaging in a mimetic relationship with Aporia agathon. Whereas M. owadai is known for its mimetic relationship with members of the genus Neptis, including Neptis alwina, Neptis dejeani, and Neptis philyroides, with similar flight and wing patterns. The distribution of M. owadai overlaps with that of N. alwina and N. dejeani, while the Northern Vietnamese distribution of M. hmong overlapping with N. philyroides and thus making it a contender for its mimetic relationship.

The genus is characterized by their lack of chaetosemata, which are sensory structures. Additionally wing venation, in the closeness of forewing vein M2 and M3 compared to the closeness of M2 with the stem of vein R5 and M1. The aedeagus of Mimaporia has a sclerotized shaft. In addition, similar to the genera Nossa and Epicopeia, of whom it has a sister-group relationship with, the aedeagus coecum is reduced or even absent.

Taxonomy
Mimaporia was described from a group of museum specimens of previously-unknown Epicopeiid moths held at the Natural History Museum, London, which first came into attention in 2002. No taxonomic change was made, due to the scarcity of genetic available to researchers until specimens of Mimaporia hmong were sent in from Vietnam. Both M. hmong and M. owadai were known after the 2002 rediscovery, but only M. hmong was described from the specimens by Wei and Yen. M. owadai, which was physically discovered 2 years later, and then retroactively identified as the specimens held in the Natural History Museum, London that were referred to in Wei and Yen's original paper.

Through morphological evidence, it suggests a potential relationship for the Epicopeiid genus Burmeia. However, for the purposes of Wei and Yen's initial description, due to the rarity of Burmeia specimens, it was neglected for genetic sampling. Phylogenetic analysis suggests a sister group relationship between Mimaporia and the genera Chatamla or Parabraxas. Despite this close relationship, Mimaporia resembles the genus Nossa rather than its sister taxa in appearance. Later research by Zhang et al. in 2020 suggests a different relationship from that interpreted by Wei and Yen, between Mimaporia and Epicopeia and Nossa, which is detailed in the second cladogram below. This research was further corroborated upon by a separate study in 2021 by Call et al..

The following phylogenetic tree is derived from Wei and Yen's research, with the left figure representing Bayesian analysis, suggesting a sister relationship with Parabraxas, whereas the right figure representing maximum likelihood analysis, and suggesting that Mimaporia is sister to Parabraxas:

A 2020 study focusing on the genetic relationships of the Epicopeiid moths by Zhang et al. focusing on their mimetic relationships moved Mimaporia outside of the currently understood arrangement. The genetic material of Mimaporia owadaiwas used for its purposes, and found a sister relationship between it and the Epicopeia and Nossa group, disputing the findings of Wei and Yen in 2017. This was further supported by morphological similarities in the genitalia of the 3 genera, which had similarities in the aedeagus coecum. The study yielded the following phylogenetic tree, which is reproduced as follows: These findings were further supported by Call et al. (2021), using targeted enrichment (TE) approach of Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) which yielded results that were entirely in agreement with Zhang et al.'s work.

Species
Mimaporia consists of 2 species, with the newest being discovered in 2019.
 * Mimaporia hmong Wei & Yen, 2017
 * Mimaporia owadai Huang & Wang, 2019

Etymology
The genus was named after the butterfly genus Aporia, and the possible co-mimicry relationship that the two genera share. It was thought that the first species discovered, Mimaporia hmong, occurred sympatrically with the butterfly Aporia agathon. Their external appearance, consisting of orange and yellow tegulae, and light colored dotted and striped wings, resemble each other.

Distribution
Mimaporia hmong was described from specimens found in Vietnam, with the type locality being Lào Cai. The specific name refers to the Hmong people of Sa Pa, Vietnam.

Mimaporia owadai was first collected from a specimen in Moxi Town, Sichuan in China. Additional specimens housed in the Natural History Museum, London, were retroactively identified as M. owadai due to similarities in external characteristics. These additional specimens had their localities listed as being from Northern India and Wolong, Sichuan. It is additionally known to occur in Luding County in Sichuan.

Species
There are two species in the genus Nannophyopsis, they are as follows:
 * Nannophyopsis chalcosoma Lieftinck, 1935
 * Nannophyopsis clara (Needham, 1930) – Emerald Dwarf

Distribution
Nannophyopsis chalcosoma is listed by Lieftinck as being found in Biliton Island, now known as Belitung. There are additional sightings on the island of Borneo.

Nannophyopsis clara was first discovered in China, with additional records in: India, Malaysia (Sarawak), Taiwan, Thailand, and Vietnam. With an additional single sighting known from Japan.

Taxonomy
First described by Joseph Dalton Hooker in 1856, its initial description was published in Transactions of the Linnean Society of London. It was originally split into three separate genera under Hooker's classification, C. crassa being described from Nova Granada, C. sphaerica being listed as "Ibid.", or same as the previous, and C. purdiei being described from Peru. These names later became synonyms for C. crassa under the monotypic genus Corynaea, as its sole member.

It is commonly known in English as "Peruvian Viagra", with the local name being Huanarpo macho, translating to "huanarpo male". This name of Huanarpo macho is shared with the unrelated Jatropha macrantha. These names directly contrast with the colloquial name of Cnidoscolus peruvianus, Huanarpo hembra, which serves as a female aphrodisiac. The colloquial names given to C. crassa refers to its alleged properties as an aphrodisiac for men.

Two varieties are currently recognized:
 * Corynaea crassa var. crassa Hook.f.
 * Corynaea crassa var. sprucei (Eichler) B.Hansen

Description
Corynaea crassa is a root hemiparasite of a broad variety of plants, thus requiring no sunlight to gather nutrients and lacking leaves. The vegetative body of the plant, and akin other members of the family Balanophoraceae consist of an accretion of plant tissue known as a haustorial tuber. It is this haustorial tuber where the inflorescences of the plant develop from. The emergence of the inflorescence is seasonal. The rhizome of C. crassa is irregular in shape, with multiple lobes. It turns a rusty color when dried. The inflorescence is typically pink in color, ranging between a yellowish-brown to an intense purple, with the peduncle, or stalk of the plant, having an irregular short and lobed sheath at its base and having a length of 1.5-2.5 cm. The flower head is globose in shape, tapering to become fusiform in shape. The flower heads have a length of between 2-4 cm and a diameter of between 1.5-2.0 cm. The individual fruits are obovoid, or egg shape, and around 1.5 mm in length and 1 mm in width.

Host plants include: Bocconia frutescens, Cayaponia sp., Palicourea sp., and Verbesina sp. It has been additionally known to parasitize bamboo shoots and Eupatorium angulare. The genera of plants parasitized span at least four separate plant families: Asteraceae, Cucurbitaceae, Papaveraceae, and Rubiaceae. In Guaramacal, Venezuela, it has been found growing in association with Renealmia (Zingiberaceae), but its relationship with the plant is currently unknown.

Human uses
Corynaea crassa is often used within Peruvian folk medicine as an aphrodisiac and as an anti-inflammatory. It has a strict use as a male aphrodisiac, and is thought to have anti-aphrodisiac properties if used on the other sex. The tubers of the plant are often sold dry or in a powder form at markets. Ethanolic extracts from Corynaea crassa have shown biological activity against the bacteria Staphylococcus aureus.

Chemical analysis of dried tubers through chromatography, steroid elucidation, and X-ray crystallography revealed a variety of compounds such as: anthocyanines, cardiotonics, flavonoids, tannins, triterpenes, and steroids, with a lack of alkaloids. The formation of the Triterpenes Lupenone with Β-amyrone and Lupeol with B-Amyrine in a 1:1 ratio that had been uncovered by the survey had never been observed prior. The individual compounds uncovered had been found in other plants with purported aphrodisiac properties. The chemical composition of the tuber can differ based on the host species, with differing hosts across its broad range contributing to different chemical compositions of tubers found in Peru and Ecuador.

Distribution
Corynaea crassa is found in South and Central America, specifically within the countries of Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, and Venezuela.

Corynaea crassa is found in the Peruvian provinces of Amazonas, Cajamarca, Cusco, La Libertad, Lambayeque, and Pasco.

Habitat
Corynaea crassa is found, in one specific locality in Colombia, to be located between elevations of 1300 m and 3000 m. A separate locality in Volcán Barú, Panama, found the plants at between the elevations of 3500-4000 m. One estimate puts the elevation at around 1250-3600 m.

Threats and conservation
Corynaea crassa is uncommon in its native range, due in part to its underground nature making sightings uncommon. One report described the species as "vulnerable". This is likely due in part to conversion of its native forest habitat into agricultural and pastoral land. Additional factors, specific to the parasitic nature of the plant, are due to its dependency onto a host plant. These include the quality of the host, resistance to parasitism by the host, and preferences of the parasite itself, can serve as factors as to why it is uncommon in its native range.

Taxonomy
Melibe colemani was first discovered in 2008 by Neville Coleman, who published a photograph of M. colemani in his book Nudibranchs Encyclopedia. The type locality was by the island of Mabul, Malaysia. The specific epithet commemorates Coleman, as the original discoverer who had passed away a month before the publication of Marta Pola and Terrence Gosliner's original description in 2012. It is commonly known as Coleman's Melibe or the ghost nudi. The vernacular name of "Coleman's Melibe" was given to it by Coleman himself as a tentative name, stating "it does not necessarily mean that when it is finally described that it will remain as that".

Description
Coleman's Melibe externally resembles the related Melibe bucephala and Melibe engeli. Its cerata bear elongate apical papillae akin to the other nudibranchs, with laterally flattened cerata, as opposed to the cylindrical cerata of M. bucephala and M. engeli. The rhinoporal sheath of M. colemani is cylindrical, with a single papilla on its apex. As opposed to the sail shaped rhinoporal sheaths with numerous papillae on the related species. The body of Melibe colemani is translucent, with its internal organs visible to the naked eye. The digestive glands of the sea slug are visible as a network of whitish beige tubules. The network of digestive glands has been compared to a "pile of strings". The tubes act as camouflage, as the sea slug blends in with its surroundings to resemble a piece of debris on the sea floor, or to resemble sponges or hydroids on the sea floor. The tube network extends onto the sea slug's back into organs known as cerata. At initial glance, the front and the back of the sea slug are indistinguishable, with the anterior end noticeable through the net-shaped mouth. Due to its strange appearance, the nudibranch has been dubbed the "holy grail of nudibranchs" by underwater photographers.

Distribution
Melibe colemani is native to the saltwater seas of Southeast Asia, throughout the Coral Triangle region. First sighted on the island of Mabul in Malaysia, additional sightings were noted by the islands of Komodo and Lembeh in Indonesia, as well as Romblon in the Philippines. Romblon in particular has been noted as a site where the nudibranch is particularly abundant.

Habitat
Coleman's Melibe is often found near coral rubble of the genus Xenia, which serves as a possible food source for the sea slug.

Discovery
Laura Sullivan-Beckers is a professor at Murray State University, with her classes focusing on zoology, ornithology, and human anatomy. Sullivan-Beckers serendipitously discovered Hebetica sylviae in 2016 while she was planting flowers in her Murray, Kentucky backyard with her daughter. Her daughter, Sylvie, had overwatered the flower bed on accident. The treehoppers, underground due to wasps storing them below ground as a food source for their larvae, had floated to the top due to the water-saturated soil. Initially, she was surprised by seeing the treehoppers underground, as they do not live underground, but later observed wasps collecting them from trees. Sullivan-Beckers assumed that the initial specimens were from the pin oak tree in her backyard. She initially noted that the treehoppers she saw appeared distinct, having studied treehoppers as a PhD student. She proceeded to excavate the flower bed for additional specimens and joined by her daughter, with Sullivan-Beckers' activity prompting concerns from her neighbors. She confirmed her suspicions that the treehopper she observed was a new species with her doctoral advisor, Rex Cocroft, in addition to experts with the US Department of Agriculture, who examined differences in wing morphology to come to the conclusion that the treehopper was a new species. Sullivan-Beckers published her discovery in 2019. The confirmation was delayed due to uncertainty as to if the treehopper was a member of the subfamily Darnini, the raindrop treehoppers, that had migrated north or that had become displaced. Sullivan-Beckers, with Stuart McKamey published their initial description of H. sylviae in the Proceedings of the Entomological Society of Washington.

Sullivan-Beckers proceeded to reach out to citizen science website iNaturalist to determine H. sylviae's broader distribution. The website allows other citizen scientists to connect with eachother and review wildlife photographs. She cited the lack of resources for finding each instance of H. sylviae on mulberry plants across the United States. A chemistry professor working at Emory University in the city of Atlanta proceeded to find individuals of H. sylviae on mulberry plants. Sullivan-Beckers found around a hundred in the following period commonly near mulberry trees. She had previously only found dead individuals from predation by wasps.

Description
Hebetica sylviae is unusual in that adults are green in color when alive. A trait that is uncommon among treehoppers in the United States but is more common among Neotropical treehoppers. Adults are green or pale brown, with the apex darker in color. The legs are pale brown with the exception of the femora being black. Males were between 7.5 mm to 8.2 mm in length, while females were 8.9 mm to 10.0 mm in length.

Members of the tribe Darnini are referred to as "raindrop treehoppers" due to their broadly rounded pronotum, making the treehopper resemble a raindrop.

Life history
It is thought by Sullivan-Beckers that Hebetica sylviae originally lived on Morus rubra, red mulberry, which is native to North America. However, the treehopper later switched to Morus alba, white mulberry, when it was introduced to the United States in the 1600s.

H. sylviae communicate through vibrational signals during courtship.

Predators
Sullivan-Beckers initially discovered the treehopper being preyed upon by the Sphecid wasp Hoplisoides costalis, which would sting the treehopper and bury it underground for the purposes of feeding its larvae. Members of the genus Hoplisoides exclusively consumes treehoppers and leafhoppers. It was found in addition to 17 other treehopper species within the wasp burrows.

Distribution
Hebetica sylviae is known from two localities, Murray, Kentucky and Atlanta, Georgia according to iNaturalist. It is thought that the treehopper shares a similar distribution to white mulberry on North America, possibly extending as far as Canada and Mexico.

Stuart H. McKamey, an entomologist for the United States Department of Agriculture who had contacted Sullivan-Beckers to confirm her discovery noted that the closest relatives of Hebetica sylviae are found exclusively within South America, making H. sylviae the sole Nearctic representative of the almost-exclusively Neotropical genus Hebetica. McKamey stated that there was "nothing similar" within 1000 mi of the discovery site, and that it was uncertain that H. sylviae had evolved there. There exists a possibility that H. sylviae was an exotic species introduced to the United States. This separation from other members of its genus meant that H. sylviae had a disjunct distribution. The initial publication noted that it was the first record of the tribe Darnini in the Eastern United States, with the sole exception of a doubtful sighting of Darnis lateralis nymph in the Mojave Desert. The remainder of the tribe is of the genus Stictopelta, with the most similar species to H. sylviae being an undescribed member of the genus Hebetica found in Mexico.

Etymology
Sullivan-Beckers named Hebetica sylviae after her, at the time, 2-year old daughter, Sylvie. She had specifically requested to name the treehopper after her daughter due to her crucial role in the discovery of the treehopper. Sullivan-Beckers stated "[she] was at the heart of the discovery, and it's not every day a mother gets the chance to name a species after her child."

Description
Adults have a wingspan of 60 mm. The moths have translucent white wings, with gray veins. The base of the front wing is yellow in color. The adult moth resembles Parnassius glacialis in appearance, and it is often misidentified as a Pierid butterfly. The hindwings have an elongated tail. The tail is formed from the veins between the fourth and seventh vein on the hindwing extending further past the remaining veins. The abdomen is dark brown in color. Adults of Elcysma westwoodii exude noxious substances in the form of a white foam from the head area if distressed.

Male moths have a pair of genital claspers that resemble forceps. During mating, male moths grasp the tip of the female's abdomen with the claspers and additionally fluttering their wings to attempt to mate with the female. Of which the female moth can reject attempts to mate. These claspers resemble those found in related moth genera Achelura and Agalope, as well as the related Elcysma dohertyi. Male moths can be externally identified as such by their antennae, which are plumose, meaning they resemble that of a comb.

Female moth abdomens in the seventh and eighth abdominal segment of E. westwoodii are sclerotized, or made further robust by the addition of sclerotin. It was likely that they evolved to be more smooth and difficult for males to grasp onto during mating. Females can be externally identified by their antennae, which lack the comb-like structure that the males antennae have, and instead appear smooth due to their shorter bristles.

Life history
Elcysma westwoodii display monandrous behavior, females mate with one male at a time. Additionally, Elcysma westwoodii is univoltine, producing one generation of moths yearly. Males search for females during the morning of the breeding season, during which copulation additionally occurs. Females are located through the use of pheromones emitted by the female moth as it rests on a surface. Olfaction is believed to be important during the search for a mate. While performing mating behavior, male moths often gather onto a single female moth. Male gathering behavior tend to attract more males to a single female, of whom can reject other males which congregate in search of a mate. The process of male congregation gives rise to potential sexual selection by the female for ideal traits for a male partner. Mating tends to last several hours, after which females leave to find hostplants to lay their eggs on. Oviposition occurs during the afternoon. Females lay their eggs on the bark or leaves of hostplants in groups of 20 eggs. The female moth will lay a total of around 100 eggs individually.

Studies by Koshio et al. found that females preferred males with symmetrical antennae and claspers. E. westwoodii males, in addition to males of a Cerambycid beetle, apparently enjoyed a preference by females on the basis of symmetric antennae. It is unknown as to why there is a relationship between symmetry and sexual selection by the female.

Larvae feed on the following hostplants: Celtis sinensis, Chaenomeles speciosa, Malus prunifolia, Prunus armeniaca, Prunus mume, Prunus salicina, and Prunus yedoensis. Most food plants are economically important plants in the family Rosaceae in the agricultural industry, and thus make E. westwoodii an agricultural pest. Outbreaks of the larvae caused by favorable conditions can cause significant agricultural damage.

The larvae are often seen in the vicinity of parks due to their diet of cherry foliage. The larvae are yellow, with black hairs emerging from the body. The body is vertically striped with black and yellow, and resemble the larvae of Pryeria sinica. The moths overwinter in the larval state. During the overwintering period, larvae gather in groups hiding under ground cover or fallen leaves. Larvae eat the leaves individually, but can often work together to defoliate the hostplant. They tend not to make enough damage to entirely kill a tree. However, defoliation can severely inhibit the growth of the hostplant. In particular the somei yoshino cherry tree, which can develop rot if defoliated, due to its sensitivity towards pruning and pest damage. It takes 50 days for the larva to reach a pupal state after 50 days spent overwintering. Larvae are found in the open during the summer, from May to June.

Pupae are often attached to the midrib, the central vein, of hostplant leaves. Pupae consist of an outer cocoon, which is made of silk which is soaked in excretions by the larva during the pupation process and hardened, and the pupa inside. The pupa externally appears irregular in shape. The moth spends 100-120 days as a pupa.

Adult moths emerge between the months of late September and early October. The moths are diurnal, and fly during the daytime. Adults engage in a dainty and weak flight. Moths fly in small groups during the mating period, attracted by pheromones emitted by the female moth. After mating and laying eggs, the adult moths die.

Interactions with humans
The larvae of Elcysma westwoodii is considered the most damaging pest to Prunus yedoensis trees. Farmers who are impacted by E. westwoodii larvae can use a variety of methods to mitigate crop damage. There is no single way to eradicate the moth larvae, and as a result local governments have found difficulty in mitigating crop damage. Pest control methods include: chemical, biological, and eradication by physical means. Biological control entails using predators and endoparasites to rid trees of larvae, chemical control entails the use of diluted chemicals to kill the larvae, while physical control methods include burning or burying overwintering larvae, or physically removing larvae from the trees. Chemical control methods have proven ineffective, as larvae are only temporarily removed from the host plant and later return. Due to a particularly mild winter and frequent rain in the Ulsan region of Korea, a particularly intense outbreak of the larvae occurred. The Taehwagang National Garden of Ulsan has been particularly affected by frequent outbreaks of E. westwoodii.

Predators and parasites
Elcysma westwoodii was found to be preyed upon by endoparasitoids from across a wide range of insect orders and families. Hymenopteran parasites included Charops striatus in the family Ichneumonidae, and a member of the family Braconidae. Dipteran parasites consisted of representatives from the family Tachinidae: including Compsilura concinnata, a member of the genus Exorista, a member of the genus Pales, and another unidentified member of the Tachinid family of flies. All parasitoids were koinobiont parasitoids, meaning that the parasitoids continued to feed off the host body while the host develops. The larva was able to continue eating and engaging in moulting while being parasitized.

Studies from Cho et al. found that Hymenopterans parasitized 68.9% of the sampled larvae, while Dipterans parasitized the remaining 31.1%. Of the 926 larvae sampled, only 45, or 4.86% were parasitized.

In addition to being preyed upon by endoparasitic wasps and flies, the larvae are preyed upon by predators such as reduviid bugs like Agriosphodrus dohrni.

Distribution
Elcysma westwoodii is found on Japan, China, the Korean Peninsula, and the Russian Far East.

In Japan, it is found throughout the islands of Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. It is restricted to the western portion of the Japanese archipelago. Despite its diet of cherry trees, a national symbol of Japan and commonly planted, it is fairly uncommon and the moth is mostly found in the Kansai region. In Korea, it inhabits the central and southern portions of the Korean peninsula. In Russia, it is found in Primorsky Krai.

The nominate subspecies westwoodii is found on the Japanese archipelago and the Korean peninsula. The subspecies caudata is found in the Russian Far East.

Habitats
It is found in flatlands and mountainous areas.

Taxonomy
Elcysma westwoodii was originally described by Samuel Constantinus Snellen van Vollenhoven as a member of the genus Agalope under the name Agalope westwoodii. It was then reclassified into the genus Elcysma as its type species in 1881 by Arthur Gardiner Butler under the synonym Elcysma translucida.

Etymology
The species epithet honours John O. Westwood, curator of the Museum of Oxford and prominent entomologist.

Elcysma westwoodii is often known as the white-tailed zygaenid moth in English. The English common name refers to the tails typical to moths in the genus Elcysma, a member of the family Zygaenidae. It is additionally referred to as the Tailed Zygaenid in English.

The Japanese language common name for the white-tailed zygaenid moth is usuba-tsubame or usubatsubamega. The epithet tsubame, meaning swallow, comes from the shape of the hind wings, which resemble the tails of a swallow bird. The Korean language common name is 벚나무모시나방, beojnamumosinabang, meaning "cherry tree moth," alluding to its larval diet of cherry leaves.

Description
Styx infernalis is a medium sized, translucent winged, brown veined, and gray-colored butterfly. The cloudy grayish white color of the wings darkens towards the outer edge. Its wing coloration has been described as resembling isinglass. Its wings are narrow, with short antennae, and it has a stout black-colored body which resembles to a Geometrid or Lymantriid moth. The butterflies have been noted to resemble smaller versions of Parnassius butterflies. Patterning akin to Styx have been observed in the butterfly genera Parnassius, Aporia, and Davidina.

Staudinger's original description of specimens he had obtained in Chanchamayo states that the butterfly had a wingspan of 46-49 millimeters.

The male's forelegs lacked pretarsal claws and exhibits less than five tarsomeres. In the males, the foretarsus is severely reduced, being half the size of the pterothoracic legs. The females have centrally clustered trichoid sensillae on the foretarsus, a feature shared with the Old World butterfly genus Laxita. Additionally, they lacked the apophyses posteriores on the female genitalia. These distinct morphological differences served as justification for the reclassification of S. infernalis into the Riodinidae.

Life history
Styx infernalis has a fairly little known life history. In an unpublished paper by Hall et al., the larvae lack spathulate setae, a feature that is present on larvae of the subfamily Euselasiinae. Akin to other Nemeobiines, the larvae feed on members of the family Primulaceae, in this case the plant genus Myrsine.

Behavior
Adults are active during the midday near sunny patches, they often engage in mud-puddling near streams. The adult's flight is weak, and appear like they are gliding in the air. There have been reports by Purser (2007) that it is possibly nocturnal. Due to their severely reduced forelimbs, it is unlikely that adult males use them for movement, akin to Nymphalid butterflies.

Taxonomic history
Styx infernalis has had a fraught taxonomic history, being reclassified within four separate butterfly families; Pieridae, Erycinidae, Lycaenidae, and Riodinidae, following its initial description by Staudinger in 1875. Erycinidae was split in 1904, with the Riodinids being placed within the family Lycaenidae.

Staudinger classified Styx as a member of the family Pieridae, however he had initially mistaken the butterfly for a moth. It was later moved to the family Erycinidae due to its morphological characteristics. In particular, its antennae, which had set it apart from other Pierids. Structural differences with regards to the thorax, legs, wing venation, and eggs warranted reclassification out of the family Pieridae.

Harvey (1987) justified the genus Styx as belonging within the Erycinidae (now known as Riodinidae) citing morphological differences. It was formerly considered as part of the subfamily Styginae, within the Lycaenidae, with the genus Styx its sole member by Ehrlich (1958) and Scott (1985). Ehrlich had considered the Styginae at equal rank to the (at the time) tribe Riodininae. When the family was classified as subfamily Riodininae within the Lycaenidae, it occupied the tribe Stygini. It had also been classified as its own separate family in its own right, the Stygidae (Eliot, 1973).

Harvey (1987) proposed that Styx belonged within the family Riodinidae. Robbins (1988) used a scanning electron microscope to highlight morphological differences with regards to the forelimbs to corroborate upon Harvey's proposed placement. Wahlberg et al. (2005) used DNA evidence to further prove its placement within the family Riodinidae.

Within the family, Styx was initially classified within the subfamily Euselasiinae, tribe Corrachiini due to biogeographical reasons rather than morphological means. This classification eventually fell through in favor of placement within the subfamily Nemeobiinae, a primarily Old World subfamily, despite the New World distribution Styx exhibits. Styx was surmised to be derived taxa from the Nemeobiine subfamily, where most other Nemeobiines had crossed the Bering Strait land bridge. Styx was most closely related to the genus Corrachia, another monotypic Riodinid from Costa Rica. Their inclusion within the subfamily Nemeobiinae thus made the subfamily monophyletic, and are sister taxa to the Old World genus Zemeros. Genetic studies by Wahlberg (2005), Heikkila (2012), and Saunders (2010) consistently placed Styx as being closely placed with Hamearis in studies with sparse Riodinid sampling.

Brown (1993) considers Styx infernalis as one of the most primitive Riodinids. Vane-Wright corroborates upon this idea, describing the butterfly as a "living fossil" akin to the Papilionid Baronia brevicornis of Mexico. It had been previously thought to be a "missing link" between the butterfly families Lycaenidae, Riodinidae, and Nymphalidae.

Distribution
Styx infernalis is native to central and southern Peru. It is distributed over a small area in a region with high species diversity.

Habitat
Styx infernalis inhabits elevations between 1000 and 1600 meters. S. infernalis inhabits the tropical montane cloud forests or the Peruvian Yungas of central and southern Peru.

Conservation
The butterfly is currently unranked by the IUCN. Brown (1993) lists the species as "Vulnerable". It is distributed over a very small area and is rarely seen. There have been little studies in relocating the butterfly for scientific purposes. Brown highlighted the importance of conservation of its native habitat by securing tracts of its native cloud forest habitat and stressed the importance of locating colonies.

Threats
The primary threat to Styx infernalis is habitat degradation by coffee plantations and other types of plantation developments in its native habitat.

Etymology
Otto Staudinger's original rationale for naming the genus Styx was because that the butterfly "[seemed] to have come from the underworld" rather than resembling the colorful tropical vegetation that had surrounded it. Thus he had named it after the River Styx, with the specific name infernalis meaning "infernal" or "nether". Staudinger wrote in his first description of the genus Styx published in Neue Lepidopteren des südamerikanischen Faunengebiets: "eher aus der Unterwelt zu stammen scheint als aus der prachtvollen Tropenvegetation".

Description
Sonchus fruticosus is a perennial plant, with some descriptions putting the giant sow thistle as deciduous. It grows up to 6 ft in height, and some reports putting it at 4 m. with a woody trunk. Its growing habit is that of a subshrub. It is a partial evergreen in its native habitat, and loses its leaves during the winter elsewhere. It is found at an elevation of 800 meters to 1200 meters. It takes 2 to 5 years to grow to its peak height, with some report putting this value at 20 to 50 years. Due to its bizzare appearance, resembling that of a giant dandelion, S. fruticosus is often grown as attractions at gardens and parks, especially in Western European botanical gardens. In addition, it is one of the few perennial plants and shrubs within the genus Sonchus. It is part of a group of giant sowthistles found in the Macaronesian region within the subgenus Dendrosonchus; such as: Sonchus acaulis, Sonchus arboreus, Sonchus canariensis, Sonchus congestus, Sonchus hierrense, and Sonchus palmensis.

The giant sow thistle has glossy toothed green leaves, with denticulate margin, sinuate, and long, growing to a length of 50 cm and arranged in a rosette. The rosette grows to a width of 0.5 m to 1 m.

It flowers during the summer, during the months of June, July, and August, with yellow flowers that resemble dandelions. The flowers are attractive to bees, butterflies, and birds. The seeds are wind dispersed.

Care
The giant sow thistle requires direct sunlight or partial shade. It requires regular or little watering, but prefers moist soil. The giant sow thistle is drought tolerant. It generally requires average, well drained soil, and free-draining, loam-based compost. The recommended pH is between 5.5 and 8.5. It prefers chalky, loamy, or sandy soil. It prefers a garden aspect facing south, east, or west. Its UK hardiness zone is H3 (tender in frost) and H1 (indoor heated), its USDA hardiness zone is 9a, 9b, 10a, 10b, and 11.

It is an outdoors plant during the summer, and is recommended to be overwintered indoors. If planted outdoors, the plant can survive a frost, with the top growth being shed while the roots survive. However, roots cannot survive freezing. It is generally pest and disease free. However vagrant populations of the aphid Uroleucon mierae and the leafhopper Empoasca fabalis are known to feed on the flowers and leaves respectively. The giant sow thistle does not require pruning, with leaves being trimmed off if necessary.

To propagate seeds, it is recommended to sow during the spring or summer, during the months of April and May, with a minimum outdoor temperature of 25 C. If propagating during winter, sow in vented containers, coldframe, or an unheated greenhouse. It is recommended to sow indoors or directly before the last frost. To collect the seeds, bag the seedheads to capture the ripe seeds. The plant can self-sow, with deadheading recommended if one does not want volunteer seedlings. It can be propagated by root cuttings, seeds, herbaceous stem cuttings, softwood cuttings, and by air layering.

Distribution
The giant sow thistle is found on the islands of Madeira. Where it grows within the Northern laurisilva cloud forest habitat within Madeira, at an elevation of 800-1200 meters. There have been reports of giant sow thistles on the island of Porto Santo, where it is rare.

There are additional, albeit unreliable, records of S. fruticosus being found on the Canary Islands. However it is doubtful that the plant is native to the Canary Islands.

Description
Corbet (1999) stated the hindwing of Tetracanthagyna plagiata had a length of 144 millimeters. It additionally had a pair of oreillets on the second abdominal segment of the male. The giant hawker is the heaviest of all living Odonates, the largest living dragonfly (infraorder Anisoptera), and the second largest living Odonate overall. The wingspan of T. plagiata specimens held at the Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum (formerly the Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research) were between 134 millimeters and 144 millimeters, with another account putting T. plagiata at a wingspan of 160 millimeters, making T. plagiata as the largest Anisopteran in Southeast Asia. Tetracanthagyna plagiata has been known to reach upwards of 163 millimeters, with a body length of 100 millimeters. This puts T. plagiata as being the largest living Odonate, surpassing Petalura ingentissima at 162 millimeters. There is some uncertainty regarding T. plagiata's weight, with Paulson (2019) stating that there is no weight records available for T. plagiata. However most researchers are generally in agreement that females of T. plagiata are the heaviest living Odonate.

Regarding the size of T. plagiata, studies by Dorrington (2012) have shown that the practice of aerial predation inhibits further size development of extant Anisopterans. Specimens of both the giant hawker and Petalura ingentissima were measured for their hindwing lengths for the aforementioned study. Specimens stored at the Natural History Museum, London had a hindwing length of 84-86 millimeters.

The giant hawker is sexually dimorphic. Males are smaller than females. Females have a hindwing length of 80-84 millimeters, while males have a hindwing length of 76 millimeters. Tetracanthagyna plagiata has a variable distal transverse banding pattern on the forewings and hindwings, with males and some females sporting dark costal streaks. Only a few specimens of T. plagiata lack the dark bands.

Life history
Females lay their eggs within rotting logs and other soft substrates covered by moss by streams through inserting their ovipositor into the rotten log. Before doing so, the female would scrape at the surface for a minute to prepare the surface while arching its abdomen. One female was spotted by the MacRitchie Reservoir displaying the aforementioned behavior. Watanabe (2003) recorded a female T. plagiata depositing its eggs into decaying wood, 150 centimeters above the water's surface.

The larvae of Tetracanthagyna plagiata were previously unknown to science, unlike the larvae of related species. Studies of the related Tetracanthagyna waterhousei in Hong Kong recorded larval predation of fish and its ecolosion from the larval exuviae. Follow up studies conducted in 2010 by Orr et al. using larvae collected in slow moving forest streams and identified using exuviae where adult specimens of T. plagiata were observed emerging from, identified by their large comparative size and distinctive sculpturing. Larvae were found within Singapore's Central Catchment Nature Reserve at two separate sites (the MacRitchie Reservoir and the Nee Soon Swamp Forest). In captivity, larvae were reared on shrimp (Macrobrachium lanchesteri), small fish, or tubifex worms (Tubifex tubifex). It is believed that the larvae feed on the shrimp species Macrobrachium trompii and Caridina temasek, as well as catfish, cyprinids, halfbeaks, and tadpoles in the wild. The anatomy of the labial palps suggest a specialization towards predation of larger prey items. Unlike the larvae of other members of the genus Tetracanthagyna, the larvae of the giant hawker are ambush predators rather than actively hunting their prey, concealing themselves as they wait for prey. The larvae also exhibit ballistic defecation, a tactic likely to avoid detection by potential prey items.

Orr et al., in the first ever larval description for a T. plagiata  nymph, described the larva as a large elongate aeshnid larva. The larva's outline was angular, and there was a "distinctive, pronounced" sculpturing on the larva's head. The larva was dark in color, and had banding on its legs. The larva's legs were short and robust, which were adapted for grasping prey. The larval mask, a hinged lower mandible also known as a hinged labium, the was robust and had distal expansion with thin and hook like labial palps, serrated along the inner margins. Male exuviae had a length of 57.5 millimeters, while female exuviae had a length of 62 millimeters. Compared to the larvae of related species Tetracanthagyna waterhousei and Tetracanthagyna degorsi, T. plagiata's larvae had a more angular head.

Adult dragonflies forage during the dawn and dusk and are attracted to lights, like many other members of the family Aeshnidae, they display a crepuscular lifestyle. They inhabit primary and secondary lowland forests.

Distribution
The giant hawker is found throughout the Oriental region of Southeast Asia, throughout the biogeographical region of Sundaland. It is found in the countries of Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, and Indonesia. René Martin (1909) described T. plagiata as being found in Borneo, Sumatra, and Malacca. M. A. Lieftinck (1954) stated that T. plagiata was also found in Singapore, where it is the only member of the genus Tetracanthagyna on the island. It has also been recorded in the state of Johor on Peninsular Malaysia. T. plagiata has been additionally recorded in Thailand.

Habitat
Male larvae were found in slow moving forest streams within secondary forest. The streams were of 1 meter width and a depth of 0.6 meters, with a substrate of a mix between sand and mud. The stream itself was filled with organic matter such as leaf litter and fallen branches. Female larvae are found in similar conditions, with vegetation such as sedges and ferns within the stream habitat in addition to trees providing shade. Adults are found in primary and secondary lowland forests.

Threats and conservation
Tetracanthagyna plagiata was assessed in 2010 by the IUCN Red List as being of Least Concern. The IUCN report stated that T. plagiata was potentially threatened by logging in its habitat, and development by mining and by wood and pulp plantations.

In a survey of Odonates conducted at nature reserves within Singapore, D.H. Murphy listed the species as "rare" within the Nee Soon Swamp Forest of Singapore. Y. Norma-Rashid corroborates upon this account, listing the species as "rare" on a checklist of Singaporean dragonflies. He additionally stated that it was an "old record." Murphy proceeded to describe the giant hawker as "totally confined" within Nee Soon Swamp Forest. Leong et al. subsequently reported that the giant hawker has been seen multiple times outside of the Nee Soon Swamp Forest, being found within the broader context of the Central Catchment Nature Reserve within Singapore. In a 2016 revision of Murphy's previous work and an update of the national conservation status for various Odonata, T. plagiata was listed as "Restricted & Uncommon," receiving the designation of "Vulnerable."

Description
Rhodinia fugax has a wingspan between 75-110 millimeters. R. fugax is sexually dimorphic, with males being smaller than females. Males range in size between 75 to 90 millimeters, and females range in size between 80 and 110 millimeters. Their coloration resembles that of oak leaves during the autumn season to serve as camouflage. Both sexes have translucent eyespots on their wings and have hairy bodies. Their hairy bodies aid in thermoregulation due to their late emergence in autumn.

Males of Rhodinia fugax display a variable appearance compared to the females. They range in color from black to dark orange, to brown and yellow shades. Males are always darker in color than the females. Females are always yellow, with the color of their submarginal band varying in thickness and the intensity of its color. Male forewings are more elongated than the rounded forewings of the females.

Life history
Eggs overwinter, with the process of blastokinesis occuring during March, hatching during April as the temperatures rise. The time of hatching is synchronized to the emergence of hostplant leaf development. The eggs are often laid on the surface of cocoons that the moths have previously emerged from. Unlike most Japanese Saturniid moths, the moths overwinter as eggs, rather than as a pupa.

Tests conducted on R. fugax found that eggs kept at 25 degrees Celsius resulted in death. Delayed hatching directly correlated to colder temperatures: with 87 days at 20°C, 100 days at 15°C, and 145 days at 10°C. Larvae would develop if kept at 5°C for 370 days, but would result in death prior to hatching.

The larvae are polyphagous and feed on a wide variety of foodplants. These include: Acer spp., Castanea crenata, Celtis pallida, Celtis sinensis, Fagus spp., Hevea brasiliensis, Ilex verticillata, Phellodendron amurense, Platanus spp., Prunus domestica, Quercus acutissima, Quercus cerris, Quercus cuspidata, Quercus serrata, Quercus variabilis, Salix spp., and Zelkova serrata. In captivity, R. fugax larvae specifically prefer Quercus serrata, Zelkova spp., Phellodendron amurense, and Prunus spp.

A total of five instars occur during the larval development. The first instar is small and entirely black, covered in dark hairs. In captivity, the larvae are reared on Crataegus. Second instars are slightly larger, with blue tubercules on the second bodily segment, with a black stripe running down the side of its body. The third instars are bright green, with blue tubercules running down the sides of its body, it has mostly lost the black coloration that the previous two instars display. The fourth instar is entirely green and displaying the same amount of tubercules as the previous instar. The final instar is instantly distinguishable from the previous four, as they lack the spines that the previous instars exhibit. The fourth and fifth instars defend themselves by emitting an audible squeaking sound through ejecting air from their trachea through the spiracles which is described as sounding using the Japanese onomatopoeia "キュー、キュー" (kyu-kyu). The sound that the larvae emit make them popular with children. The larvae are preyed upon by parasitoid wasps, including Gregopimpla ussuriensis (Ichneumonidae, Pimplinae) which is a major predator for the larvae. Larvae begin to enter the pupal stage around June and July. The pupae are bright green to act as camouflage amongst the green foliage, the pupal case sports a slit at the top to allow the adult moth to emerge. They are hung using a silk thread on tree branches. Empty cocoons can be spotted hung amongst defoliated tree branches during the winter months.

Adults emerge between the late autumn months of October and November. Only one generation of moths are produced yearly, thus making R. fugax univoltine. The moth is diurnal, flying during the early mornings, finding its mate during its daytime flight. The adult moths lack mouthparts, thus making their lifespans brief. Male and female moths concentrate their energy as adults to find a mate before they die.

Distribution
The squeaking silkmoth is found in Korea, Japan, China, and the Russian Far East. In Japan, it is found throughout the islands of Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. It has been additionally sighted on Sado Island.

The nominate subspecies fugax is found throughout the Japanese main islands of Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. Subspecies diana is found on the northern island of Hokkaido. Subspecies diana has also been recorded on Manchuria, and the Russian Far East.

Habitat
The adults inhabit Satoyama hillsides, flatlands, and mountainous regions.

Interactions with humans
The cocoons of Rhodinia fugax were historically used as a remedy for tumor and lump by reducing them in whooping cough sufferers.

Vernacular names
The English vernacular name for Rhodinia fugax is the Squeaking silkmoth. It has also been referred to as the Pellucid-spotted silk moth in English.

The Japanese name for the imago of R. fugax is ウスタビガ Usutabiga. The silken cocoons are most often called ヤマカマス, yama-kamasu. They have been alternatively known as ツリカマス tsuri-kamasu and ヤマビシャク yama-bishaku.

Taxonomy
Three subspecies are currently recognized by GBIF.
 * Rhodinia fugax diana Oberthür 1886
 * Rhodinia fugax fugax Butler 1877
 * Rhodinia fugax szechuanensis Mell 1938

The National Center for Biotechnology Information recognizes an additional 4 subspecies, all described by Ronald Brechlin in 2007.
 * Rhodinia fugax flavescens Brechlin 2007
 * Rhodinia fugax guangdongensis Brechlin 2007
 * Rhodinia fugax jiangxiana Brechlin 2007
 * Rhodinia fugax shaanxiana Brechlin 2007

Description
R. fuliginosa is a short and stout dragonfly with a body length of 32-41 millimeters in length. The wings are 30-40 mm across and patterned with a deep blue iridescent shade. Depending on the viewing angle, the dragonfly's wings can vary in color due to their light scattering properties, with some appearing golden in the light. The wing patterns are thought to be a determinant between members of the same species to avoid mating with the incorrect partner.

Males have spots on the tips of their hindwings, a feature that allows differentiation between male and female individuals. Southern Japanese specimens of R. fuliginosa feature spotted forewings and entirely pigmented hindwings.



Range
R. fuliginosa is found throughout East Asia, being known to have been spotted in China, Japan, Taiwan, and the Korean Peninsula. It has been known to extend its range further south into Vietnam as well.

In Japan the dragonfly is found throughout the main island of Honshu from as far north as Aomori Prefecture and can be found further south into the island of Kyushu's Kagoshima Prefecture. Overall, R. fuliginosa is found throughout the islands of Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. There have been reports of sightings further north into Hokkaido as well. Its range further extends onto the offshore islands off the Japanese mainland, such as Tanegashima.

In Mainland China, R. fuliginosa is found in: Guangdong, Hebei, Henan, Hunan, Jiangsu, Jiangxi, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shichuan, and Zhejiang provinces. There are unconfirmed sightings in Hainan province as well.

It is a rare vagrant in Taiwan, with the first sighting of R. fuliginosa being recorded in 2007. Four other members of the genus Rhyothemis are found throughout the island in its absence, Rhyothemis regia, Rhyothemis severini, Rhyothemis triangularis, and Rhyothemis variegata.

Habitat
The butterfly flutterer prefers inland freshwater wetlands, with a particular interest in wetland regions with aquatic plants. Habitats include: marshes, swamps, permanent freshwater lakes, permanent freshwater marshes, artificial ponds, and aquaculture ponds. Flights have been seen to occur in plains, mountainous areas, hills, and satoyama watersides. Because of their flight capabilities, R. fuliginosa adults tend to be able to venture further outside of their wetland habitats. During the evenings, adults venture into the forests to rest in the canopy.

Ecology
R. fuliginosa feeds on flying insects, with mosquitoes being favored as prey.

Mating is short, and egg laying occurs almost immediately following mating. Eggs are deposited by the female on the surface of freshwater bodies. R. fuliginosa overwinters as a larva, feeding on small insects.

It has been previously known to exhibit swarming behavior, however as a result of habitat depletion and pollution with insecticide use, there has been significant population decline within Japan. Increasing urbanization has resulted visible population decline, with the butterfly flutterer becoming less and less abundant within metropolitan areas.

Etymology
The English language names refer to the Japanese language name, which directly translates to "butterfly dragonfly." The common name refers to the wide, iridescent wings along with the unique fluttering flight the species exhibits which resembles that of a butterfly. It shares this Japanese common name with the related Rhyothemis variegata, which is known as オキナワチョウトンボ (okinawa chou-tonbo, "Okinawa butterfly dragonfly").

Description
The plant can grow from 5 to 20 centimeters in height. There are two to four leaves that are lanceolate in shape which are undulated, the leaves are 10 centimeters in length and are a blue-grey color. The flowers are zygomorphic and nodding downwards on pedicels, they range in color from white to pink, with maroon tips, and are fragrant during the night. The plant flowers between the months of April and July. They are most often found on rocky terrain, usually in granite or sandstone slopes. The plants are perennials and have an underground corm.

Distribution
O. undulatum is found within the provinces of Eastern Cape, Northern Cape, Western Cape in South Africa. In Namibia it is found throughout the ǁKaras Region, concentrated in the Richtersveld and Namaqualand regions.

Cultivation
O. undulatum grows well in well drained soil with moderate or little watering required. The plant favors heavy sunlight, owing to its desert habitat.

Distribution
The Nemeobiinae was erected to encompass the entirety of the 7 percent of Riodinids that reside within the Old World. This has remained true, however, recent studies have placed the New World subfamily of Euselasiinae within the Nemeobiinae, with Corrachia and Styx believed to be apomorphic Nemeobiines. The greater Riodinid family is believed to have evolved in the Neotropics and migrated to the Old World through the Bering land bridge during the Oligocene.

Of the Old World members of the Nemeobiinae, encompassing around 13 genera and 110 species, the majority (60 species) are concentrated in the Indomalayan realm of Southeast Asia. The remainder are found within the Afrotropical realm with 15 species, the Australasian realm with 28 (Praetaxila), and 1 species found in Europe (Hamearis). A single member of the subfamily exists on the continent of Australia, Praetaxila segecia. While most members of the Nemeobiinae are found within the tropics, a handful are found within temperate areas (Hamearis, Polycaena and Takashia).

Genera
The Nemeobiinae have been fraught with revision and uncertainty throughout its entire existence. Seraphim et al. (2018) proposes through genetic analysis that the subfamily is split into two tribes, and the family would encompass members of the New World subfamily Euselasiinae as tribe Euselasiini within the Nemeobiinae, while Corrachia and Styx would be moved to the Nemeobiina. The following list follows from the revised classification by Seraphim et al. (2018).

Tribe: Nemeobiini Bates, 1868
 * Subtribe: Abisarina
 * Abisara C. Felder & R. Felder, 1865
 * Afriodinia D'Abrera, 2009
 * Archigenes Fruhstorfer, 1914
 * Dicallaneura Butler, 1867
 * Laxita Butler, 1879
 * Paralaxita Eliot, 1978
 * Praetaxila Fruhstorfer, 1914
 * Saribia Butler, 1878
 * Taxila Doubleday, 1847
 * Subtribe: Nemeobiina
 * Corrachia Schaus, 1913
 * Dodona Hewitson, 1861
 * Hamearis Hübner, 1819
 * Polycaena Staudinger, 1886
 * Stiboges Butler, 1876
 * Styx Staudinger, 1876
 * Takashia Okano & Okano, 1985
 * Zemeros Boisduval, 1836

Tribe: Euselasiini
 * See the Euselasiinae article for further information.
 * Euselasia Hübner, 1819
 * Hades Westwood, 1851
 * Methone E. Doubleday, 1847

Life history
B. cajani is bivoltine, and its life history is synchronous with that of the related Europtera punctillata moth. There have been suggestions that the species is trivoltine, and lacks a pupal diapause phase. It has been observed to have asynchronous life cycles depending on the location, with the likely reasion being that the Imamo region being slightly more warm and wet compared to the Itremo region.

The first generation of eggs are found during November to January, with the second generation being found from March to April. Larvae are found from November to February, and March to June/July. Pupae are found February to March, and July to November. There are five larval stages. Pupae of the second generation are more numerous than the first one. The entire life cycle takes between 102 and 192 days to complete.

B. cajani has been observed feeding on the following plants: Uapaca bojeri, Aphloia theiformis, Erica baroniana, Psychotria retiphlebia, Aristida rufescens, Saccharum viguieri, Imperata cylindrica, Dodonaea madagascariensis, Schizolaena microphylla, Sarcolaena oblongifolia, and Loudetia madagascariensis. Of these host plants, Uapaca bojeri, the Tapia tree, forms the overwhelming majority of B. cajani's larval hostplants. However, laboratory studies have shown that B. cajani can be raised to prefer voafotsy (Aphloia theaeformis).

B. cajani is preyed upon by a large variety of birds, bats, reptiles, preying mantids, ants, and spiders. They are also subject to parasitism by Ichneumonid and Braconid wasps, as well as the tachinid fly Synthesiomyia nudiseta. On top of this, B. cajani is subject to diseases such as Pébrine, Muscardine, and Flacherie.

As food
B. cajani is considered a delicacy to the Malagasy people, they are eaten in the cocoon stage either fried or mixed with chicken and rice. Only the cocoons were eaten, and the larvae of the landibe moth were left alone. The Malagasy people referred to the larvae as Zana-dandy.

As a resource
The Malagasy people regularly harvested the cocoons of B. cajani, of which they referred to as Soherina. Landibe silk was harvested by women, who would dye the silks using plant dye, mud, and charcoal in order to give the silk earthy colors. An estimated 10,000 families work within the silk industry within Madagascar. Due to its rarity, landibe silk can sell for high prices, ranging from 100-200 American dollars for a few meters. During the colonial period, French authorities attempted to control the landibe industry, with a landibe research center being created by colonial authorities. Joseph Gallieni wrote of landibe silk as an "important issue which directly affects the economic future of Madagascar," with district boundaries planned out according to expected silk revenues within the tapia woodlands. It was later deemed of inferior quality to Bombyx mori silk, locally known as landilikely.

The Malagasy buried the deceased in shrouds of silk made from B. cajani cocoons, and they would regularly exhume bodies everly 5-10 years to be rewrapped in landibe silk in a practice known as Famadihana or famonosan-drazana. Red-dyed Landibe shrounds are known as lambamena in the Malagasy language, while lighter shades of cloth are known as lambalandy which is wrapped over the initial lambamena layer. The practice of Famadihana is of importance, constituting a form of razana worship. Where beings in a parallel spiritual world constantly interact with the world of the living. The practice is one of simultaneously clothing the corpse, as well as honoring them. While refusing to shroud a corpse is viewed as stripping the body of its status as a human and veneration.

Along with funerary shrounds, landibe silk was used to make lamba garments. The lamba is often seen as an iconic Malagasy symbol to the diaspora population, which wear it to represent their cultural heritage. During the rule of Radama I, landibe silk was used to create Western attire such as suits and in the present day, can be used to make high-end fashion. Some elder individuals hold the silk to high regard, and believe that only nobility and elders can wear the silk due to its association with the practices of Famadihana.

Conservation
B. cajani is currently unlisted on the IUCN Red List. However a local study noted that the species was "critically endangered" in its local habitat of tapia woodland. From a yield of 100 tons in 1902, landibe silk has fallen to a yield of 43 tons in 2009. Historically, the drop was attributed to zavadolo or spiritual matters, as well as the lack of soron-dandy, a ritual done to ensure a large yield of silk.

An indirect threat to the silkworms have been bush fires caused by doro tanety, bandits who burn the tapia woodland where the moths are native in order to cover their tracks during theft. As well as deforestation of their habitat for firewood.