User:Oswax/CANE

The Chronology of the Ancient Near East deals with the difficult task of assigning dates to various events, rulers and dynasties from the 3rd to the 1st millennia BC. An absolute chronology can be built by first assembling relative chronologies for separate cities and regions, and then fitting them together through synchronisms. Once one of the chronologies can be anchored to a known date or astronomical sighting (mainly eclipses of the sun or moon), then the whole period can be dated with some certainty.

From Alexander to Nabonassar
The end of the ancient near east coincides with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, after which the Hellenic age begins. Formerly, the area was ruled over by the Persian Empire, whose king, Darius III was defeated at the Battle of Gaugamela in 331 BC. The date of Alexander's death is securely fixed, and the events of his reign, including Gaugamela, are recorded by the historian Arrian.

The Persian kings before Alexander are accurately known from the Canon of Kings by Ptolemy, which records the names and reigns of kings of Babylon. The Persian kings he lists are as follows:


 * 335 - 332 Darius III
 * 337 - 336 Arses
 * 358 - 338 Artaxerxes III
 * 404 - 359 Artaxerxes II
 * 423 - 405 Darius II
 * 464 - 424 Artaxerxes I
 * 485 - 465 Xerxes I
 * 521 - 486 Darius I
 * 529 - 522 Cambyses
 * 539 - 530 Cyrus

Cyrus became king of Persia in 559 BC, and, through his conquests, provides synchronisms with other rulers of his time. He overthrew Astyages, the last king of the Medes, in 550 BC and Croesus, the last king of Lydia, in 546 BC. He also conquered Babylon in 539 BC, deposing the king Nabonidus, and freeing the Jews from the Babylonian Captivity. In 525 BC, four years after his death, his son Cambyses conquered Egypt and killed pharaoh Psammetichus III.

Ptolemy continues with the names and reigns for the Chaldean kings of Babylon before Cyrus:


 * 556 - 539 Nabonidus
 * 560 - 556 Neriglissar
 * 562 - 560 Amel-Marduk
 * 605 - 562 Nebuchadrezzar II
 * 626 - 605 Nabopolassar

The reigns of the Chaldean kings are also informed by the Babylonian Chronicle, which help tie  the dynasty into the following Persian kings and the preceding Assyrian kings. Another document from this time, the Cylinder of Nabonidus, records that during renovation of the temple at Sippar, inscriptions of king Naram-Sin, son of Sargon of Akkad, were found, and gives a date of about 3750 BC for his reign. For some time this figure was accepted by modern historians and used to help build Mesopotamian chronology, but it is now wholly discredited.

Following these are the names and reigns of the kings of Babylon while under Assyrian dominance. The first of whom, Kandalanu, was appointed by Ashurbanipal in his twenty-first year, thus providing dates for events in his reign. Ashurbanipal's destruction of Susa in Elam and the sacking of Thebes in Egypt, as well as numerous minor campaigns across his kingdom, are important anchors for local chronologies. At some times the king of Babylon was partly or wholly independent from Assyria, and at other times the throne was occupied by the king of Assyria himself:


 * 647 - 627 Kandalanu
 * 668 - 648 Shamash-shum-ukin
 * 681 - 669 Esarhaddon
 * 689 - 681 Babylon ruined by Sennacherib
 * 693 - 689 Mushezib-Marduk
 * 694 - 693 Nergal-Ushezib
 * 700 - 694 Ashur-nadin-shumi
 * 703 - 700 Bel-ibni
 * 703 Marduk-apal-iddina II (again)
 * 705 - 703 Sennacherib
 * 710 - 705 Sargon II
 * 722 - 710 Marduk-apal-iddina II (usurper)
 * 727 - 722 Ulula
 * 729 - 727 Pulu
 * 732 - 729 Nabu-mukin-zeri
 * 734 - 732 Nabu-nadin-zeri
 * 748 - 734 Nabonassar

The Canon of Kings ends with Nabonassar, but up to, and including, his reign, some events can be dated with a certainty of a day.

The later king Pulu is, in truth, king Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria, who is important for he led many campaigns in the near east, and thus links in with other sources. He defeated Urartu under Rusas I and destroyed the city of Arpad in Syria. Also, the Bible (and Assyrian sources) tell how he subjugated Judah, Israel and Damascus.

From Shalmaneser V to Enlil-nasir II
As mentioned, king Pulu was also king Tiglath-Pileser II of Assyria. Likewise, his sucessor Ulalu was king Shalmaneser V of Assyria. This gives a strong connection between the Canon of Kings and the Assyrian Kinglist, drawn up in the reign of Shalmaneser. This list gives the names and reigns of all previous Assyrian kings back to the 3rd millenium BC. Although separate versions of the list are fragmentary, it can be restored confidently back to the accession of Enlil-nasir II in 1420 BC. The kings of this time are as follows:


 * 727 - 722 Shalmaneser V
 * 745 - 727 Tiglath-pileser III
 * 755 - 745 Ashur-nirari V
 * 773 - 755 Ashur-Dan III
 * 783 - 773 Shalmaneser IV
 * 811 - 783 Adad-nirari III
 * 824 - 811 Shamshi-Adad V
 * 859 - 824 Shalmaneser III
 * 884 - 859 Ashurnasirpal II
 * 891 - 884 Tukulti-Ninurta II
 * 912 - 891 Adad-nirari II

here mention limmu pur-sagale and the eclipse of his reign, and how limmu list have let dates be certain to this point

The Canon's accuracy is confirmed by the larger king lists, the principal Babylonian Chronicle and the Assyrian Eponym Lists (or limmu lists), by which Assyrian chronology is fixed from 911 BC to 666 BC. The solar eclipse of June 15 763 BC, which is recorded in the eponymy of Pur-Sagale or Bur-Sagale, fixes the dead reckoning for these later periods with certainty.


 * 935 - 912 Ashur-Dan II
 * 967 - 935 Tiglath-Pileser II
 * 972 - 967 Ashur-resh-ishi II
 * 1013 - 972 Ashur-rabi II
 * 1019 - 1013 Ashur-nirari IV
 * 1031 - 1019 Shalmaneser II
 * 1050 - 1031 Ashurnasirpal I
 * 1054 - 1050 Shamshi-Adad IV
 * 1056 - 1054 Eriba-Adad II
 * 1074 - 1056 Ashur-bel-kala
 * 1076 - 1074 Ashared-apil-Ekur
 * 1115 - 1076 Tiglath-Pileser I
 * 1133 - 1115 Ashur-resh-ishi I
 * 1133 Mutakkil-Nusku
 * 1133 Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur
 * 1179 - 1133 Ashur-Dan I
 * 1182 - 1179 Ninurta-apil-Ekur

add note to say that there are two possibilites for the reign length of ninurta-apil-ekur, and that here the shorter one has been chosen


 * 1187 - 1182 Enlil-kudurri-usur
 * 1193 - 1187 Ashur-nirari III
 * 1196 - 1193 Ashur-nadin-apli
 * 1233 - 1196 Tukulti-Ninurta I
 * 1263 - 1233 Shalmaneser I
 * 1295 - 1263 Adad-nirari I
 * 1307 - 1295 Arik-den-ili
 * 1317 - 1307 Enlil-nirari
 * 1353 - 1317 Ashur-uballit I

here mention the amarna letters and the wealth of synchronism therein

The Amarna letters provide the earliest known synchronisms between Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. They provide clear evidence that the New Kingdom kings Amenhotep III and Akhenaten were contemporaries of Kadashman-Enlil I and Burnaburiash II of Babylon, Ashur-uballit I of Assyria, and Suppiluliumas I of the Hittite empire.

Other synchronisms between Mesopotamia and Egypt are indirect, depending on synchronisms between Egypt and the Hittite empire. For example, because Ramesses II signed a peace treaty with Hattusili III in Ramesses' 21st regnal year, and letters from Hattusili III to Kadashman-Turgu and Adad-nirari I of Assyria exist, one can argue that the reign of Ramesses overlapped the reigns of Kadashman-Turgu and Adad-nirari I.

The Battle of Nihriya links Tudhaliya IV and Adad-nirari I as contemporaries.

The correspondence of the Hittite kings Hattusili III and Tudhaliya IV with the Assyrian chancellor Babu-ahu-iddina conclusively proves that they were the contemporaries of Adad-nirari I, Shalmaneser I and Tukulti-Ninurta I, not their later namesakes.


 * 1380 - 1353 Eriba-Adad I
 * 1390 - 1380 Ashur-nadin-ahhe II
 * 1398 - 1390 Ashur-rim-nisheshu
 * 1407 - 1398 Ashur-bel-nisheshu
 * 1414 - 1407 Ashur-nirari II
 * 1420 - 1414 Enlil-nasir II

The Assyrian Kinglist extends for many hundreds of years beyond this point, but the reign lengths of the next two kings are unknown due to the fragmentary nature of the document.

The entries of the Synchronistic Chronicle, mentioned above, record which Assyrian king was ruling during which Babylonian king's reign, and vice versa.

1595 BC and earlier
Before this were the kings of the First Dynasty of Babylon, whose names and reigns are given by the Babylonian King Lists. Its dates can be fixed by a set of astronomical observations from near the end of the dynasty, known as the Venus tablet of Ammi-Saduqa.


 * 1690-1659 Samsu-Ditana
 * 1711-1690 Ammi-Saduqa
 * 1748-1711 Ammi-ditana
 * 1776-1748 Abi-eshuh or Abieshu
 * 1814-1776 Samsu-iluna
 * 1857-1814 Hammurabi
 * 1877-1857 Sin-muballit
 * 1895-1877 Apil-Sin
 * 1909-1895 Sabium or Sabum
 * 1945-1909 Sumula-ilum
 * 1959-1945 Su-abu or Suum-abum

A text about the fall of Babylon by the Hittites of Mursilis I at the end of Samsuditana's reign tells about a twin eclipse, which is crucial for a correct Babylonian chronology. (The reading of the word Babylon is uncertain but why should a Babylonian tablet refer to another city?). The pair of lunar and solar eclipses occurred in the month Shimanu (Sivan). Professor Peter J. Huber has computed several options that would satisfy the conditions of the detailed description. The lunar eclipse took place on February 9, 1659 BC. It started at 4:43 and ended at 6:47. The latter was invisible which satisfies the record which tells that the setting moon was still eclipsed. The solar eclipse occurred on February 23, 1659 BC. It started at 10:26, has its maximum at 11:45, and ended at 13:04. This indicates that the presently accepted Middle Chronology is too low from the astronomical point of view. See Peter Huber, "Astronomical dating of Babylon I and Ur III" in Monographic Journals of the Near East (1982: 41).

The sack of Babylon by the Hittite king Mursilis I, which ended the reign of Samsu-Ditana, provides an anchor for the earliest dates in Hittite history.

The chronology of Babylon and Assur can be aligned by the list of wars and treaties between the two cities from the time of king Ashurbanipal. Hittite chronology is dependent on Assyria and Egypt. For times earlier than 1500 BC, various systems based on the Venus tablets of Ammisaduqa have been proposed. The death of Shamshi-Adad I of Assur in the 17th year of the reign of Hammurabi (1712 BC short ch.) is another synchronism which is helpful. The Palace at Acemhöyük burned to the ground, allowing for Dendochronological dating of the seal impression of Shamshi-Adad I found in the ruins. While the stratigraphy of the connection between the burnt beams and the seal impression is not 100% clear, it does support the short chronology.

We start our list of Babylonian kings with a significant ruler of Erech called Lugalzagesi, placing him from 2411 BC to 2376 BC. He was a contemporary of Urukagina king of Lagash (reigned 2407-2399 BC) and Sargon (2399-2343 BC) king of Akkad.

After Sargon, the next king was Rimush(...). His contemporary in Ur was Ka-kug or Ka-ku (2376-2341 BC). The son and successor of Rimush was Manishtusu (2334-2329 BC), whose Assyrian viceroy was Abazu, son of Nuabu.

In this period the rulers of Kish were Simudarra or Simudar (2399-2369), a contemporary of Sargon. After him Usi-watar (2369-2362), Eshtarmuti (2362-2351), Ishme-shamash (2351-2340), and Nannia (2340-2243) reigned in Kish.

In Akkad, after Manishtusu, the following kings reigned:


 * 2329-2282 Naram-sin
 * 2282-2257 Shar-kali-sharri

He was contemporary with the first Gutian king, Erridupizir, and he later defeated Sarlagab, another king of Gutium.


 * 2257-???? Igigi, Nanum, and Imi, pretenders
 * ????-2254 Elulu, a pretender, maybe King Elul(u)mesh of Gutium.
 * 2254-2233 Dudu
 * 2233-2218 Shu-durul

Shu-durul was the last ruler. (Agade/Akkad was defeated by Erech. Then Erech dominated until 2194, then eight Median-Elamite usurper tyrants ruled for 224 years, according to Berossus, from 2194 to 1970 BC. Some of them are listed here.)

Erech:
 * 2219-2212 Ur-nigin(ak)
 * 2212-2206 Ur-gigir(ak)
 * 2206-2200 Kudda or Gudea
 * 2200-2195 Puzur-ili
 * 2195 (?)  Lugal-melam (?)
 * 2195-2189 Ur-utu(k)
 * 2189-2179 Utu-khegal or Utu-khengal

He was a contemporary of Tirigan, the last king of the Guti.

During this period the Gutian or Guti kings flourished as follow:


 * 2280-2277 Erridupizir, the first ruler.
 * 2277-2274 Imta
 * 2274-2268 Inkishush
 * 2268-2265 Sarlagab
 * 2265-2259 Shulme'
 * 2259-2253 Elulmesh or Elulu-mesh
 * 2253-2248 Inimabakesh
 * 2248-2242 Igeshaush
 * 2242-2227 Iarlangab or Iarlagab
 * 2227-2224 Ibate
 * 2224-2221 Iarlangab
 * 2221-2220 Kurum
 * 2220-2217 Habil-kin
 * 2217-2215 La'erabum
 * 2215-2213 Irarum
 * 2213-2212 Ibranum
 * 2212-2210 Hablum
 * 2210-2203 Puzur-sin
 * 2203-2196 Iarlaganda
 * 2196-2189 Si'u or Si'um
 * 2189-2189 Tirigan

Tirigan reigned only for 40 days, according to Jacobsen. His chrononolgical table (1934: 208 ff.) has placed the accession of Ur-Nammu (Dynasty III of Ur) ten years after the end of Utu-khegal's reign. His fall may or may not have coincided with his lost battle against Erech. This famous battle took place on the day of an eclipse of the moon, on the 14th day of the month Duzu or Tammuz, from the first watch to the middle watch. See Carl Schoch (1927: B6-B8), and Thorkild Jacobsen, The Sumerian King List (Chicago, 1934: 203). This is the first eclipse record in the Near East that is identifiable with high probability. It took place on August 13, 2189 BC, with a magnitude of 120% which is remarkable.

After the defeat of Gutium, the Third Dynasty of Ur was fourishing:


 * 2179-2161 Ur-Nammu or Ur-Engur
 * 2161-2113 Shulgi

A double (solar and lunar) eclipse took place 23 years after Shulgi's accession to the throne. Prof. Jacob Klein of Bar-Ilan University in his book Three Sulgi hymns (1981: 59 and 81) tells that the first 23 years of his reign was peaceful, and that the sun was eclipsed on the horizon, just like the moon on the sky, during the first battles of Sulgi. (Most historians do not feel confident about their own astronomical profiency, therefore the extreme importance of this double eclipse record remained unnoticed. Another difficulty is that the reading has a questionmark.) Z.A. Simon adds that the lunar eclipse is mentioned first in the poem, because the  worship of Sin (The moon) was predominant for them, and that the record is poetic, not that of an astronomer. This rare phaenomena occurred on May 9, 2138 BC (solar eclipse), with a magnitude of 34%. The lunar eclipse took place on May 24, 2138 BC.


 * 2113-2104 Amar-Sin or Bur-Sin. His viceroy in Assyria was Zariqum.
 * 2104-2095 Shu-Sin

An eclipse of the moon observed in the month Simanu (Sivan) may be placed near the end of Shu-sin's reign, called patricide eclipse in the literature. The clipse "drew through" and "equalized" the first watch, meaning that has coincided with it, then touched the second watch. It took place on July 25, 2095 BC. Refer to Carl Schoch, Die Ur-Finsternis (Berlin, 1927: B6-B8). Professor Peter J. Huber, Astronomy and Ancient Chronology in the journal Accadica (Vol. 119-120) deals with this issue about the omen EAE 20-III. We have learned from him that it may have belonged to the death of Shulgi, or it may have been another king, for the name is not mentioned. (Therefore, it could have belonged to Shu-sin, we believe, also adding that the expression will wrong him does not necessarily mean murdering a king. We note here that the data evaluated by Huber (page 166) "rejects the middle chronologies on the 1% level... this is a strong argument against the correctness of the middle chronologies." (Editor's note: those are still in common use.)


 * 2095-2070 Ibbi-Sin

Ibbi-Sin's reign lasted for 24 or 26 years (S. Langdon and John K. Fotheringham, The Venus tablets of Ammisaduqa, 1928). An eclipse of the moon caused terror shortly before his fall, in the month Addaru or Adar. The real eclipse had a magnitude of 153%. (Schoch describes this eclipse as well, proposing a different candidate.)

A few years before the fall of Ibbi-Sin, another city started to flourish: Isin. Its first ruler had emerged several years earlier. The kings of Isin are as follow:


 * 2083-2050 Ishbi-erra
 * 2050-2040 Shu-ilishu
 * 2040-2019 Iddin-dagan
 * 2019-2000 Ishme-dagan
 * 2000-1989 Lipit-Ishtar
 * 1989-1961 Un-ninurta
 * 1961-1940 Bur-sin or Amar-sin
 * 1940-1935 Lipit-enlil
 * 1935-1927 Erra-imitti or Ura-imitti
 * 1927-1927 Tabbaya
 * 1927-1903 Enlil-bani
 * 1903-1900 Zambiya
 * 1900-1896 Iter-pisha
 * 1896-1892 Ur-dulkugga
 * 1892-1881 Sin-magir
 * 1881-1858 Damiq-ilishu

The First Dynasty of Babylon was almost contemporary with Isin. Their chronology is debated, because there is a King List A and a Babylonian King List B. Hereby we follow the regnal years of List A, because those are widely used, although we believe that the other list is better, at least for one or two reigns out of the first six. (The reigns in List B are longer, in general. Unfortunately, it is not available for the editor.)

Three different dating schemes for dates between the 10th and 21st centuries are in use in literature:
 * The low or short chronology, most commonly used today, sets the eighth year of Ammisaduqa at the year 1531 BC as the end of the first dynasty (with a reign of king Hammurabi 1728 BC–1686 BC).
 * The middle chronology, which was the most commonly used chronology until recently, is 64 years (one period between identical conjunctions of Venus, Sun and Moon) earlier than the short chronology (Hammurabi 1792 BC–1750 BC).
 * The long chronology is 120 years earlier than the short chronology (Hammurabi 1848 BC–1806 BC).