User:P.B.2026./Elite Muslim women and the Mongol Empire

Across the annals of Islamic cultural evolution, there unfolds a nuanced interplay and absorption with other extraneous cultural spheres. Central to this transformative process lies in the changing dynamics of gender, which serves as a poignant epitome of cultural development. While previous scholars have highlighted the historical struggles Islamic women faced in securing and preserving their fundamental rights, it is a fallacy to generalize their status and position in society as “the oppressed”. This article embarks on a journey through the expansive geography and timeline of Islamic history, focusing on the intricate interactions between Islamic and Mongol cultures. The examination centers around the pivotal period coinciding with the establishment of the Mongol Empire. It examines the roles of women who came from different social classes, geographies, ethnicities, and cultural backgrounds, in search of providing a comprehensive account of the Islamic culture and its development in that period.

Cultural and Societal Significance
The examination of gender dynamics within a specific temporal and spatial framework is of profound significance, as it allows us to dissect and elucidate the intricate nuances of societal structures and cultural influences on the roles of women. In the contemporary context, amidst the burgeoning women empowerment campaigns, a prevailing misconception persists concerning the purported limitations on women's rights within the Islamic culture. However, it is imperative to transcend such stereotypical claims and unravel the veritable realities that defy these preconceived notions.

Examining gender dynamics under a specific spatial and temporal framework is of profound significance. Gender dynamics itself is a nuanced concept intersecting with societal structures, culture, politics, economics, and so on. The intrinsic interaction of these elements in society can be well reflected through the study of women's roles. The juxtapositional time of the Mongols and Islams saw the clashes, integration, and development of two completely different societal structures, i.e., the nomadic and sedentary societies respectively. Such interaction, in today's globalization process, serves as a significant example of the development and integration of world culture in general.

Background Information
Women in the nomadic societies, in comparison to those in the neighboring sedentary societies, enjoyed a relatively higher level of independence. Because of the harsh conditions in their living environment, women were expected to not only take care of their own tasks like caring for the household, some of which were physically challenging already, but also to perform their husbands’ roles including leading the household when their husbands left for war or hunting. Women in the imperial household also enjoyed a large sum of wealth at their disposal. In addition, their characters and qualities in some cases promised them the ability to decide their fates. They could also influence the politics of the state as they are included in some of the decision-making processes like nominating the new Khan, and were even able to directly make decisions. Along with the clashes and interactions between two different social structures, there came changes. Thus, the examination of women's roles in both societies exemplifies these interactions.

Religion also played its part in this interaction. Mongols, despite the fact that they were the conquerors, eventually converted to Islam. It was a gradual process that took place over several centuries and involved interactions with various Muslim communities. Before the rise of Genghis Khan, trade and commerce accounted for a large portion of the interaction between the Mongolian and the Islamic communities. While Genghis Khan himself didn't convert to the Islamic religion, he demonstrated a degree of religious tolerance and maintained the diversity in culture and religion in his empire. The conversion of the ruling class Mongols happened in Ilkhanate, a Mongol khanate established from the southwestern sector of the Mongol Empire, the region known nowadays as Iran. Ghazan Khan, its seventh ruler who ruled the Ilkhanate in the late 13th century, converted to the Islamic religion for both personal and political reasons. While there remains ambiguity in the exact date, location, and reason the conversion took place, there is no doubt the conversion is influential. It might have led to El Qutlugh Khatun, Ghazan Khan's paternal aunt, and other Mongolian women's performance of the Hajj.

Pre-Mongol Empire
Prior to the Mongolian expansion into Islamdom, family life in the Middle East was standard for the time. Women took care of family life while the men often went out and worked to be the breadwinners of the family. On top of running the household, Arabian and Muslim women were often recognized as teachers, wives, mothers, and community leaders. On both a political and social level, Arabian/Muslim women influenced important decisions. No matter their social status in society, noble or commoner, all women of the Islamic faith, to an extent, enjoyed this acknowledgment.

From the times of the Prophet Muhammad up to the Khwarezmian Empire, the lives and pleasures of women were subject to the political context and socioeconomic status at the time. From the tip of  Yemen to North Africa, Spain, and Turkey, Muslim Empires rose and fell, with family life forever changing and social norms expanding every day.

Women in a higher social class were often barred from going out to markets and other public places, while their lower social class counterparts were often seen frequenting markets and mosques. Additionally, ‘common’ women also played a large role in craft-making, food preparation, medicine, midwifery, and agriculture.

Elite women, or those of a higher social class were often engaged in polygyny, or the marriage of multiple women to one man. After being married to the man, these elite women often engaged in seclusion, seldom being seen in public. The practice of seclusion was not exclusive to Muslim women, with Jewish and Christian elite women also practicing seclusion and veiling.

Prophet Muhammad Era
After the birth of the Prophet Muhammad in 12 Rabiulawal (29 August, 570 CE), the ‘official’ history of Islam and Muslim women began. Women around the Prophet and those alive during his time enjoyed much more freedom than those in later Islamic empires. For starters, seclusion from society was less common, and they were often seen interacting with their male counterparts, regardless of their social status.

Furthermore, women started to hold important roles in politics and were allowed to own property. Women had the right to inheritance as well as social and marriage rights which included the right to initiate a divorce and reject the terms of a proposal.

The introduction of Islam not only elevated the status of women in society but also changed the perspective that men had on their female counterparts. During the pre-Islam era, women were often seen as commodities and were looked down upon by men. Women had no rights and were often viewed as chattels, they could be sold into marriages for a price, succession rights for women were non-existent, and it was the same for property rights as well.

The Evolution of Harems
Harems are spaces that are specifically reserved for women, meaning that male access is slim to none. In many pre-Islamic civilizations, the practice of secluding women was common practice, with many royal courts having one. Often housing the ruler's wives, concubines, female attendants, and eunuchs. The term “harem” typically refers to the Near and Far East, while “Court” is used to refer to European equivalents.

After the creation of Islam, the seclusion of women into “Harem” spaces became more prominent in society. It is believed that this increase in seclusion was partially due to the influence of the previous Byzantine Empire, a heavily patriarchal society. As the Islamic empires continued to change, the harem changed as well. Mosques and other common spaces were segregated, women of elite status were kept out of the public eye, and their freedoms slowly chipped away.

Veiling
With the rise of Islam came the practice of modesty or the covering of the body. In Islamic teachings, wearing a veil or “hijab” is supposed to shield and protect them from harm. Therefore, wearing the hijab or participating in veiling not only has a religious reasoning but also a spiritual meaning as well. In Islam, different types of veils cover different amounts of the body. Such as a niqab (which covers the whole body only leaving space for the eyes to look out), burqa (which also covers the whole body, including the eyes, and utilizes a mesh screen for vision), chador (commonly used by Iranian women), and the aforementioned hijab.

Veiling is mainly done when a woman is going out in public or is around any male to whom they are either not married or is not related. Unlike in modern Islamic societies, pre-Mongol Islamic societies typically saw elite Muslim women adhering more strictly to veiling than their lower-class counterparts.

Under Mongol Rule
From 1220 onwards, life for Muslim women both of high and low status changed. In Mongolian society, being nomadic and moving from place to place is normal. During the rule of Genghis Khan, the Mongols were on a conquest to expand their territory and influence.

The Mongol invasion of the Muslim world began in 1217 and continued up until 1305. As different tribes were either conquered or willingly submitted to the Mongols, the cultures and traditions of both sedentary and nomadic societies became intertwined.

In Mongolian households, the women often run the household as the men are often out fighting wars and hunting. The women would not only be left to attend to household matters but would also deal with the political aspect of the village, ranging from daily task divisions all the way to disputes that may arise.

Mongolian women of high status, depending on their rank in the horde had responsibilities that ranged from only being in charge of one task, to managing the whole household or a side branch of the household. In some cases, women also partook in conquests and other military ventures.

Now under Mongol rule, Muslim women were still free to practice their religion and live life in a similar manner to pre-Mongol rule, however, should they marry into a Mongolian household (non-elite status) or, be taken as a bride (elite status), then their responsibilities, freedoms, and rights would change. For the most part, their status would be elevated and they would be more respected than their counterparts, as in Mongolian society women are not only highly respected but also highly revered.

Pre-Mongol Empire
Prior to Mongolian rule, the socioeconomic status of Muslim women played a very large role in the degrees of freedom and pleasure in which they could enjoy. Unlike the times during Pre-Islam, women had legal status and gained many rights and freedoms. Women, with the rise of Islam, were no longer only seen as commodities or burdens to their families, and now were held in a position of prestige and influence. In Islamic empires, Muslim women were viewed as being their own entity, being in charge of their own moral and spiritual obligations. Women were allowed to and were encouraged to receive an education, mainly due to the Prophet Muhammad's declaration that the pursuit of knowledge is necessary for men and women. Education is not the only place where women experienced equity, women were also valued more in the familial role, also due to the Prophet's declaration.

In regards to marriage, both lower-class and elite women now had the right to agree to or decline marriage proposals, and initiate divorces (although the terms could be a little tricky to navigate). Muslim women now also had to consent to marriages, and a marriage would be deemed invalid should she not give her consent. Women were also allowed to express themselves freely, with many expressing their political, personal, and social opinions openly with their counterparts, with some women during the era of Prophet Muhammad conversing with the Prophet about such matters.

Under Mongol Rule
Under Mongolian rule, Muslim women for the most part enjoyed the same freedoms and status as they did during their Islamic empires. As for many Muslim women though, as they were not ethnically Mongolian (until the Mongols began to convert to Islam), they were viewed as inferior in certain aspects, but this applied to all religions.

Elite women often enjoyed more benefits than their lower-class counterparts as they were typically engaged in political or tactical marriages, which were meant to keep peace between different clans and build alliances. Keeping relations good was imperative during the times of conquest and war, thus being an elite Muslim woman engaged in a cross-cultural marriage meant receiving better treatment and more freedom than the lower class. Of course, there were certain cases in which the lower-class Muslim women had more freedom, such as they did not have to adhere to royal protocol, were not required to engage in veiling (although it would be viewed as anti-moral in Islam), and more.

Religion
During the Mongol Empire, trade flourished throughout and so did the spread of ideas. Within the spread of ideas, there was the introduction and conversion into religions such as Islam under the religious tolerance of the empire. The Ilkhanate was one of the khanates a part of the Mongol empire who had converted to Islam. The conversion brought about changes to the elites of the royal court, especially the roles of noble women. This section discusses the influence of Islamization on gender-based roles along with the relationship between Ilkanate women and their religion.

El Qutlugh's Hajj
El Qutlugh Khatun(lady), a Mongol princess of the Ilkhanate, was born into nobility as the daughter of Abagha Ilkhan and her account gave a particular glimpse into traditional Mongol practices through the lens of a Khatun. When it came to the conversion to Islam, there were definite disconnects between the religion and traditional Mongol practices that were hard for many to accept as the conversion went through mostly on an individual basis.

El Qutlugh seemed to have brought Islam into her heart more readily than others to construct a new identity for herself both a devout Muslim and a Mongol princess. As a Muslim, she gained new religious responsibilities such as expectations for her to complete the hajj which was one of the five holy pillars of Islam.

On her way to Mecca, El Qutlugh was riding her own horse and entertaining by holding hunts to show off her archery skills in typical Mongol fashion. As well as her generous acts of charity entailing donating thirty thousand dinars to the holy lands of Mecca Medina. She was highly respected for her capabilities and kindness. When El Qutlugh reached Damascus, the Mamluk governor of Syria went out to greet her and held her in such high regard for she entered Damascus with no parasol covering her head. Her tale was that of an epic with this strong female heroine who goes on this pilgrimage to fulfill not only her duties to her family name but to herself as a devout Muslim.

Islamic Rituals
El Qutlugh's taking of the hajj and donations towards charities were not representative of all the activities that court women had undertaken to display their faith. Many elite Mongol women were not only expected to go on the hajj but were deeply invested in Islamic rituals as well.

With the establishment of the Ilkhanate, interactions between the royals and Sufi leaders have increased since Sufi shaykhs were sourced to be present among the royal family in all of the regions conquered by the Mongols. They were said to play a role in bringing Islam closer to the Mongol rulers, especially in the area surrounding the Ilkhanate and the Golden Horde. Sufi leaders brought with them the teachings of Sufism which is a spiritual aspect of Islam that deals with many religious rituals that women could take part in.

Mongol women had always been a part of spiritual rituals since pre-empiric times. There was the worship of important female goddesses and female ancestors as Mongol women held ties to shamans who sought divination or performed sacrifices to their ancestors.

Unfortunately, they were often accused of sorcerey or witchcraft by taking part in these rituals by their political opponents as an attempt to discredit them. For instance, Fatima Khatun who was an advisor to the ruler at the time was charged with witchcraft for causing her political opponent's son, Köten to fall ill. Therefore, it would be a reasonable assumption to infer women's eventual participation in these rituals as Sufi leaders intermingled with the court and spread their influence.

This practice would have been more accepted for its linkage to the religious sphere that most of the court is partaking in. As with the shift into the conversion to Islam, religion began to fill a sector of a noble Khatun's life. This could be seen in women such as Padshah Khatun who dedicated her life at the Mongol royal court to religious efforts sourced from her writings that describe her passion for religion which can be a shared trait for many noble women. Religion was their center.

Impact on Today
Although Islam may not be an initial thought when examining the Mongolian Empire, there is a vast amount of cultural and religious exchange between the Mongols and the Islamic world. This Islamization of the nomadic empire not only changed the manner in which the Mongols lived their lives but also resulted in a switch in the gender roles of the Mongolian Empire and the world of Islam.

There has been an evident shift in women's roles and expectations pre-Islam, most commonly being treated like property and having little to no liberties. Women were often sold into marriages and were unable to partake in many aspects of society. There is an evident change from this status of women to after the spread of Islam as well as an additional shift under the Mongolian Empire. The rights and status of women evolved into women running the household rather than just being seen as teachers, wives, and mothers. With the spread of Islam came the development of harem, places where women would be able to congregate and spend their time outside of the home. Various religious practices developed including veiling, in order to remain protected and modest in public. Gender roles in the Islamic world have changed and progressed throughout history, especially under the Mongolian Empire.

For the duration of Mongolian rule, after 1220, the women of the Islamadom found their lives to be quite different. Women were designated as the leaders of the household while the men would be fighting wars, this provided women with the ability to develop a stronger role in society, now being involved with political and religious matters. Many Mongolians converted to Islam and participated in the traditions while maintaining their elite Mongolian role. El Qutlugh's pilgrimage to Mecca exemplified the change in the societal status of women with the cultural diffusion. A Mongolian Princess converting to Islam, publicly and actively participating in Muslim customs and rituals.

The status of women in Islam is a common topic of discussion in modern times and one that perhaps needs to be approached with more nuance. Historically, women have had quite a large role in the development of Muslim and Mongolian societies alike.