User:Palomok

1.List the functions of the human circulatory system. The function of the circulatory system is to collect chemicals and wastes from the blood cells of the body, give a steady supply of food and oxygen to each part of the body, and to carry nutrients and hormones to each part in the human body .

2.Trace a drop of blood through the heart from right atrium to the aorta. A drop of blood goes into the venae cavae, then the drop of blood is emptied into the right atrium. After that the atrium is filled up with blood. Then, when the heart contracts, the blood gets squeezed into the right ventricle. The right ventricle is surrounded by tissue that does not allow blood to go back into the right atrium. Then, when the heart contracts again the blood enters blood vessels and is sent to the lungs. Next, the oxygen rich blood leaves the lungs and goes back into the heart in blood vessles. The blood then enters the left atrium, and passes through the bicuspid valve into the left ventricle. Finally, powerful contractions force the blood into the aorta, which carries the blood to every part of the body.

3.Locate and label the parts of a heart on a diagram.



4.Compare the blood on the right side of the heart with that on the left side. The heart has a left and a right side, which are separated by a muscular wall called the septum. Each side of the heart also has two chambers: the atrium on top, and the ventricle on the bottom. The right did in under develop..

5.Describe the components of blood.(red blood cells, white b.c., platelets and plasma) Red Blood Cells: A red blood cell normally does not have a nucleus; it is a very small, circular disk with both faces concave, and contains hemoglobin, which carries oxygen to the body tissues, these are also the most common. White Blood Cells: White Blood Cells are small colorless nucleated cells in the blood, lymph, and tissues, which are important in the body's defenses against infection. 

6.Identify and describe the function of the different types of circulation: pulmonary and systemic circuits. Systemic circulation: the blood that is high on oxygen leaves the heart passes through the aorta into a lot of arteries that supply blood to every part of the body. Pulmonary circulation: the blood that is low on oxygen is pumped out of the right ventricle of the heart into the lungs through pulmonary arteries. Then the blood is pumped back into the heart through pulmonary vein.  7.Explain how the heart beats. Before each beat, your heart fills with blood. Then its muscle contracts to squirt the blood along. When the heart contracts, it squeezes so it can squirt out the blood. Your heart does this all day and all night, all the time. 

8.Explain what is meant by blood pressure. Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by the blood against the inner walls of the blood vessels; blood pressure varies with health, age, emotional tension, etc.</B> <I> 9.Explain how blood is produced in the body. Describe the role of the spleen and marrow Blood cells are produced in the bone marrow, a jellylike substance inside the bones that is composed of, among other things, fat, blood, and special cells that turn into the various kinds of blood cells. In children, the marrow of most of the bones produces blood. But in adults, only the marrow of certain bones -- the spine, ribs, pelvis, and some others -- continues to make blood. Bone marrow that actively produces blood cells is called red marrow, and bone marrow that no longer produces blood cells is called yellow marrow.

All blood cells come from the same kind of stem cell, which has the potential to turn into any kind of blood cell. These stem cells are called pluripotential hematopoietic stem cells.

As the blood cells develop from the stem cells in the marrow, they seep into the blood that passes through the bones and on into the bloodstream. The different kinds of blood cells have different "life spans" -- red blood cells last about 120 days in the bloodstream; platelets about 10 days; and the various kinds of white blood cells can last anywhere from days to years.

The body has a feedback system that tells it when to make new red blood cells. If bodily oxygen levels are low (as they would be if there are too few red blood cells circulating), the kidneys produce a hormone called erythropoietin, which stimulates the stem cells in the marrow to produce more red blood cells. </I>

<B>10.Discuss diseases of the heart (hypertension and atherosclerosis) One disease is atherosclerosis. This disease can develp when the arteries become narrowed by the deposits of cholesterol building up on the sides of the artery. Another disease of the heart is hypertension. Hypertension is high blood pressure. When someone's blood pressure is high, their heart has to work harder. This strain on their heart causes the heart to weaken. People with high blood pressure are also more likely to develop problems in their arteries outside of their heart. The arteries are more likely to develop leaks. </B>

<SPAN style="font-size:large;"><SPAN style="font-family:Trebuchet MS;"> The digestive system..</SPAN></SPAN>

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<B>1.List the parts of the digestive system and give their functions. Mouth: chews up food so that it can be swallowed. Pharynx:Is the part of the throat that sends the bolus to the esophagus. Esophagus:This is a long tube like structure which connects the pharynx to the stomach. The walls of the esophagus are made up of rings of muscles which are necessary to push food into the stomach. Liver:The liver is a large brown colored organ which is located just above of the stomach. The function of this organ is to excrete bile, which is a mixture of cholesterol, colored pigments, and chemicals like bile salts. Gallbladder:This is where bile from the liver is stored. Stomach:The stomach is a thick muscular sac which is located directly below the diaphragm. In the stomach there are three sets of glands that produce gastric fluids which break down the foods which are stored in the stomach. Pancreas:This is a long organ which is located behind the stomach that secretes pancreatic fluid. There are enzymes in this fluid that are responsible for the digestion of fats, essential amino acids, carbohydrates, and protein. Sodium bicarbonate is also in the pancreatic fluid. This neutralizes the hydrochloric acid that is produced by the stomach. Small Intestine:The small intestine floods chyme from the stomach with enzymes and digestive fluid. Large Intestine: This removes water from the undigested materials that pass through it. Rectum:Is valve like anal sphincter muscles that prevent feces form being released until it is ready to be directed through the anus. Anus:This is where feces exits the body. </B> <IMG src="http://www.freewebs.com/sosexyinpink/dig.bmp"> <B>3..Explain the function of the digestive enzymes amylase, protease and lipase.

digestive enzymes- are complex proteins involved in digestion that stimulate chemical changes in other substances.

Amylase-Amylase is an enzyme that changes complex sugars (starches) into simple sugars during digestion.

protease -is responsible for digesting proteins in your food. Lipase-is an enzyme necessary for the absorption and digestion of nutrients in the intestines.

</B> <I>4.Explain the results of the chemical digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats and discuss if this digestion occurs in the mouth, stomach and/or small intestines. </I>

<B> 5.Discuss the importance of the liver and pancreas in digestion. List the substances they produce and explain their function. The pancreas secretes both digestive enzymes and hormones. This mixture of enzymes is important to digestion, because these enzymes break down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. The pancreas also secretes sodium hydrogen carbonate. This is important to digestion, because it makes the pancreatic juice alkaline. This is necessary because it neutralizes the acidity of partially digested food and gastric juice. The liver is a complex gland that produces bile. Bile is important to digestion, because bile is able to break down fats into small droplets. Bile is also involved in neutralizing stomach acids. </B>

<I>6.Describe the structure of the villi and explain how its function is related to its structure

Intestinal villi plays a major role in the absorption of digestive products. The villi lines the small intestine's wall. Villi increase the surface area of the intestinal lining. The base of these glands secrete large amounts of a watery fluid. The watery fluid secreted by the base of the villi acts as a medium in which digestive products can move. Once the digestive products are in the watery fluid, they can then be moved back into the villi. (the watery fluids are a vehicle that allow villi to acquire the needed digestive products. )

<SPAN style="font-size:large;">The Excretory System</SPAN> <B>1.Define excretion ? The act or process of discharging waste matter from the blood, tissues, or organs. The matter, such as urine or sweat, that is so excreted.</B> <I>2.Describe the function of the skin, kidneys, lungs and liver in the excretory process. The liver changes ammonia into a harmless chemical called urea, which is carried into the kidneys where the urea will be filtered out. The skin excretes excess water, salts, and a little bit of urea. The lungs function in the excretory process is to excrete carbon dioxide. </I> <B>3.Describe the structure and function of the kidney and its parts. The kidneys perform two primary functions. 1. they filter the blood and remove metabolic wastes, then excreting them out of the body. 2. they help to regulate the production of red blood cells, blood pressure, and the volume, composition, and pH of the blood. </B> <IMG src="http://www.freewebs.com/sosexyinpink/ex.bmp"> <I> 4.Explain how the nephron functions. A nepron is a tiny filter that filters out water, glucose, vitamins, amino acids, protein waste products, salts and ions. While at the same time keeping the blood cells and most proteins in the blood vesselss. </I> <B>5.Explain the difference between filtration and re absorption Filiration is when fluid from the blood is filtered into the Bowman's capsule, while reabsorption is when the material removed from the blood at the Bowman's capsule makes its way back into the blood. </B>

<SPAN style="font-size:x-large;">Muscular System</SPAN> <B>1.Compare the structure and function of three types of muscles and give examples of where these muscles would be found in the body. Smooth muscles:These types of muscles are found in blood vessles and internal organs. These muscles line the organs and blood vessels, and produce involuntarily controlled contractions. Involuntary muscles:Involuntary muscles are muscles which have contractions, which are not under conscious control. An example of an involuntary muscle is the cardiac muscle, the muscle which makes up the heart. Voluntary muscle:A voluntary muscle is a muscle which contracts under conscious control. An example of a voluntary muscle is the biceps. </B> <I> 2.Explain the mechanism of muscle contractions When the muscle is stimulated to contract, the cross-bridges move, pulling the two filaments past each other. After each cross-bridge has moved as far as it can, it releases the action filament and returns to its original position. The cross-bridge then attaches to the action filament at another place and the cycle is repeated. When thousands of action and myosin filaments interact this way, the entire muscle cell shortens. This concept is called the sliding filament theory. </I> <B>3.Explain the function of flexors and extensors. The function of the flexor is to flex or bend the joint that it is contracting next to, while the function of the extendor is to straighten out the joint that it is close to whenever it contracts. </B>

<I>4.Explain how muscles fatigue. When muscles become fatigued a number of their physiological responses are changed; they become weaker, slower and more efficient at using ATP to maintain tension </I> <B> 5.Explain how muscles, bones, and tendons are related. Skeletal muscles are made up of fibers, are covered with fascia, and are attached to bones by tendons. </B> 6.Explain the `all or none' response. There is no partial contraction of the muscle cell. Contraction is an "all-or-none" response. <B> 7.Identify 10 major muscles of the body.

Triceps brachii: This muscle is located at the back of the upper arm Biceps brachii: This muscle is located at the front of the upper arm Deltoid: This muscle is located in the shoulder Gluteus maximus: This muscle is located in the buttocks Temporalis: This is the muscle that is located right above the ear Frontalis: This muscle is located in the forehead Pectoralis major: This muscle is located in the breast Gastrocnemius: This muscle is located in the back of the bottom part of the leg Sternocleidomastoid: This muscle is located in the neck Tensor fasciae latae: This muscle is located in the hip</B> <SPAN style="font-size:xx-large;"> Respiratory System</SPAN> <B>1.Identify the structure and function of the parts of the respiratory system. <U>Alveoli: </U>A tiny, thin-walled, capillary-rich sac in the lungs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place. <U>Bronchi:</U> Either of two main branches of the trachea, leading directly to the lungs. <U>Bronchioles</U>: A small branch of the bronchus. <U>Diaphragm:</U> A muscular membranous partition separating the abdominal and thoracic cavities and functioning in respiration. <U>Lungs:</U> Either of two spongy, sac like respiratory organs in most vertebrates, occupying the chest cavity together with the heart and functioning to remove carbon dioxide from the blood and provide it with oxygen. <U>Trachea:</U> A thin-walled tube of cartilaginous and membranous tissue descending from the larynx to the bronchi and carrying air to the lungs. </B> <U><U><I> <B><B>2.Explain the function of the ribs and diaphragm in the breathing process the diaphragm is the muscle that controls the breathing process. As the diaphragm flattens it causes the chest to expand and air is sucked into the lungs. When the diaphragm relaxes, the chest collapses and the air in the lungs is forced out. It is located at the bottom of the rib cage. The ribs have the intercostal muscles between them which helps with the inhalation and exhalation. </B></I></U></U> </B> <I>3.Explain how breathing rate is controlled. breathing is usually an involuntary process, it can be controlled by how the chemistry of your blood interacts with a part of your brain called the medulla oblongata. This part of your brain helps maintain homeostasis. It responds to higher levels of carbon dioxide your blood by sending nerve signals to the rib muscles and diaphragm. As a result, these muscles contract as you inhale </I>

<B>4.Describe what happens between the alveoli and the capillaries. The trachea is a pipe shaped by rings of cartilage. It divides into two tubes called bronchi. These carry air into each lung. Inside the lung, the tubes divide into smaller and smaller tubes called bronchiolies. At the end of each of these tubes are small air balloons called alveoli. Capillaries, which are small blood vessels with thin walls, are wrapped around these alveolies. The walls are so thin and close to each other that the air easily seeps through. In this way, oxygen seeps through into the bloodstream and carbon dioxide, in the bloodstream, seeps through into the alveoli, and is then removed from the body when we breathe out. </B> <I> 5.Describe the effects of smoking on respiration. When you smoke a cigarette, you inhale the smoke into your lungs. This means that your lungs are directly exposed to the 4,000 toxic substances in cigarette smoke. These substances can impair your lungs' ability to function and interfere with the mechanisms that protect your lungs against disease. </I>

<SPAN style="font-size:xx-large;">Skeletal System</SPAN> 1.Identify twenty major bones in the body.

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2.State the functions of the skeletal system The main function of the skeletal system is to provide a framework for the tissues of the human body. </B> <I> 3.Describe the composition of bone Every bone in the human body has several components, which include compact bone, spongy bone, cartilage, and a surrounding membrane. The compact bone looks like a series of rings. The spongy bone is the opposite of the compact bone, because it is less dense. It is called the spongy bone, because it is filled with many holes and spaces. The cartilage is a flimsy material that surrounds the spongy bone. The surrounding membrane surrounds the entire bone. </I> <B> 4.Explain the differences in structure and function between the 4 major kinds of moveable joints: ball and socket, hinge, pivot, gliding <U>Ball-and-socket Joint:</U> Ball and socket joints allow rotational movements. Your hips and shoulders are ball-and-socket joints. <U>Pivot Joint:</U>Pivot joints allow bones to twist against each other. The first two vertebrae of your neck are pivot joints. <U>Hinge Joint:</U>The hinge joints allow back and forth movement, like that of a door hinge. Your elbows, knees, fingers, and toes are hinge joints <U>Gliding Joint</U>:The gliding joint is when bones slide against each other. Your wrists and ankles are gliding joints </B> <I>5.Discuss some injuries or disorders of the skeletal system. fibrous dysplasia is a chronic disorder in which bone expands due to abnormal development of fibrous tissue, often resulting in one, or more, of the following: uneven growth of bones pain brittle bones bone deformity . The most commonly affected bones include the following: femur (thighbone) tibia (shin bone) ribs skull facial bones humerus (the bone of the upper arm) pelvis vertebrae in the spine (less often) What causes fibrous dysplasia? The exact cause of fibrous dysplasia is not known, but it is believed to be due to a chemical abnormality in the protein of the bone. It may be an inherited disorder

Treatment may include: surgery, including the following: removal of affected bone, followed by bone grafting (a surgical procedure in which healthy bone is transplanted from another part of the patient's body into the affected area) removal of bone wedge placement of a rod down the shaft of the bone medication pain management physical therapy</I>

<SPAN style="font-size:xx-large;">The immune system</SPAN> <B>1.Describe the function of the immune system. The immune system is a complex network of organs that has cells that recognize foreign substances in the body and destroy them. It protects humans against infectious agents, such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, and other parasites. </B> <I> 2.Explain how the skin functions as a defense against disease. is a physical barrier that helps to prevent microorganisms from entering the body such as bacteria and other things to make you sick.. </I> <B>3.Distinguish between a specific and nonspecific response. A nonspecific response is the body's first line of defense against disease, they do not point at anything in particular, they just guard against all types of infections. a specific response, these responses are when the body has a specific thing which it is aiming for. </B> <I>4.Describe the actions of B cells and T cells in an immune response T-Cells attack antigens or antigen-bearing agents directly, providing cell mediated immunity, B-Cells produce antibodies that act against specific antigens, allowing for antibody mediated immunity.</I>

<B><B>5. Describe the relationship between vaccination and immunity. Immunity is when the body is able to permanently fight a disease using B-cells and T-cells produced the first time the body was exposed to the disease. during immunity the body is naturally exposed to a disease so that it can fight future breakouts of a disease,</B>

vaccination is when the body is exposed to a mild form of a disease, so that the body can produce B-cells and T-cells which will help fight future breakouts of the disease. while vaccination is when the body is artificially exposed to a disease so that the body can become immune against the certain disease.</B>

<I>6.Describe what happens in an allergic response. http://alabamaallergy.com/diseases/allergic.html When an allergic person is exposed to an allergen, IgE is produced to fight off the specific allergen. Each time IgE is produced, the IgE molecules attach themselves to mast cells that are found in large numbers in the eyes, nose, lungs, intestines, and immediately beneath the skin. These mast cells contain many chemicals, including a substance called histamine which, when released into the body, can cause runny nose, sneezing, watery eyes, itching, hives, and wheezing. These effects are recognized as allergy symptoms. When a sensitized person is exposed to an allergen, let's say a bee sting, then the bee sting allergen is trapped by the "anti-bee sting" IgE. This trapping causes an immediate release of the chemicals from the mast cells, thus causing an allergic reactio </I>

<B> 7.Describe at least one immune disorders. AIDS is a chronic, life-threatening condition caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). By damaging or destroying the cells of your immune system, HIV interferes with your body's ability to effectively fight off viruses, bacteria and fungi that cause disease. This makes you more susceptible to certain types of cancers and to opportunistic infections your body would normally resist, such as pneumonia and meningitis. The virus and the infection itself are known as HIV. The term acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is used to mean the later stages of an HIV infection. In the 25 years since the first reports of the disease, AIDS has become a global epidemic. Worldwide, an estimated 38.6 million people are living with HIV, nearly half of them women and girls between the ages of 15 and 24. And though the spread of the virus has slowed in some countries, it has escalated or remained steady in others. In 2005, more than 4 million people were newly infected with HIV; 25 million have died of AIDS since the epidemic began Even if you don't have symptoms, you're still able to transmit the virus to others. Once the virus enters your body, your own immune system also comes under attack. The virus multiplies in your lymph nodes and slowly begins to destroy your helper T cells (CD4 lymphocytes) — the white blood cells that coordinate your entire immune system </B>