User:Papasmurf0810/AP U.S. History Test

The AP U.S. History Test will take place on May 14, 2014, and will consist of information from 25 chapters.

Chapter 5
Chapter 5: The Establishment of New Political Systems (1787-1800) contains the following topics:
 * Desire for a Stronger Central Government
 * Government Under the New Constitution
 * The Issue of Slavery
 * Ratification of the Constitution
 * The Presidency of George Washington
 * The Bill of Rights
 * Competing Visions: Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson
 * The French Revolution
 * Foreign Policy and Jay's Treaty
 * Washington's Farewell Address
 * The Presidency of John Adams
 * The Alien and Sedition Acts

Desire for a Stronger Central Government
Following the new country's economic issues, as well as Shays's Rebellion, many Americans began to feel that a stronger central government than the one established by the Articles of Confederation was necessary. In 1787, delegates from 13 states met in Philadelphia to amend the Articles of Confederation (including Hamilton, Washington, Madison, and Franklin). Debate soon turned to the strengthening of the national government, including duties such as imposing taxes, raising an army, and regulating commerce, but some delegates feared that too much power would fall into the hands of a small group. Small states and large states had different ideas of representation, and Northern and Southern states began to view each other suspiciously.

Government Under the New Constitution
Two plans for the national legislature were composed during this era: the Virginia Plan (proposed by Virginian plantation owner Edmund Randolph), which called for proportional representation and was backed by larger states, and the New Jersey Plan, which called for one vote per state and was backed by smaller states. James Madison backed the Virginia Plan and managed to dispel the fears of many by proposing three branches of government. Delegates from Connecticut finally proposed the Great Compromise, which included an upper house with two votes per state (the Senate) and a lower house with proportional representation (the House of Representatives). Also, the chief executive of the government would be elected by an Electoral College, and senators would be elected by state legislatures.

The Issue of Slavery
In order to decide on how slaves would be counted in the population for representation purposes, the convention created the Three-Fifths Compromise, which stated that three-fifths of a state's slave population would be counted. Southern states were happy with the section of the Constitution promising national aid to any state threatened with "domestic violence," as they assumed this would protect them from future slave revolts.

Ratification of the Constitution
The writers of the Constitution wanted it to be approved by ratifying conventions in each state. Supporters of the Constitution called themselves Federalists, and those opposed called themselves anti-Federalists. Federalists supported a strong national government and believed the elite would act in the country's best interest, while anti-Federalists supported power of the individual states to protect themselves from the tyranny of the central government; they believed the government was not based on republican principles and wanted a Bill of Rights. The Constitution was passed by all states on July 26, 1788 (after tough fights in New York, Virginia, and Massachusetts).

The Presidency of George Washington
George Washington's reputation made him the choice for the country's first chief executive. During his presidency, he felt it was crucial to establish respect for the office of President and believed that it was his job to administer laws, not make them.

The Bill of Rights
James Madison initially opposed a Bill of Rights, but by 1791, he had changed his mind and proposed 12 amendments to the Constitution (10 of which were ratified by the states). Anti-Federalists supported this Bill of Rights, and their fears of authoritarian government were quieted. Provisions of the bill included the rights to free speech, religion, arms, and due process and the forbidding of the quartering of troops in private homes, warantless searches, and cruel and unusual punishments. It also stated that persons could not be forced to testify against themselves, that these were not the only rights that Americans had, and that any powers not specifically given to the federal government belonged to the states.

Competing Visions: Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson
Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton wished to turn America into a manufacturing society, institute strong mercantilist policies, and join in an economic union with Great Britain. He believed in a strong national government and broad interpretation of the Constitution. Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson (supported by James Madison) proposed that America remain largely agricultural and supported free trade. He was fearful of the power of the federal government and favored a strict interpretation of the Constitution. The two-party system thus emerged in the United States, with Hamilton's supporters calling themselves Federalists and Jefferson's followers calling themselves Republicans and supporting laissez-faire economic principles. Hamilton's plans were most popular in the Northeast's commercial cities and the South's port cities, while Jefferson's plans were popular in the Western and Southern sections of the country. In Hamilton's Report on the Public Credit, he proposed a national bank, the taking over of state debts by the national government, redeeming in full all notes issued by the government established by the Articles of Confederation, and using subsidies and tax incentives to spur industrial growth (which would be paid for by high tariffs on foreign imports). Jefferson and Madison opposed these plans, maintaining that the commercial elite would benefit at the expense of the farmer. Most of Hamilton's programs ended up being adopted.

The French Revolution
The French Revolution broke out as George Washington took over as president in 1789, and by 1793, a continent-wide war pitted France against most of Europe. Washington issued a Declaration of Neutrality, allowing American merchants to trade with both sides. Supporters of the Revolution's democratic principles (of which there were many) also tended to supported Jefferson and his republican ideals. Democratic-Republican clubs emerged in cities and carefully followed events in France. Those who were appalled by the Revolution tended to support federalism. In 1794, the Whiskey Rebellion broke out among Pennsylvania farmers who were inspired by the Revolution. They opposed Hamilton's tax on distilled alcohol, which reduced profits on the whiskey that they produced and sold. Washington raised an army to put down the rebellion, but by the time it was ready to fight, the rebellion had largely ended.

Foreign Policy and Jay's Treaty
By 1794, as the war in Europe continued, British officials began to search and seize American merchant ships. Washington sent Chief Justice John Jay to negotiate with the British, but the result of Jay's Treaty was that America had to comply with British demand that they had to right to remove French products and materials from American ships (however, the British did agree to leave some forts that they still occupied in the Northwest Territory). Thomas Pinckney's popular treaty with Spain gained navigating rights for the U.S. along the Mississippi River, allowing farm produce from the South and West to get to markets much quicker.

Washington's Farewell Address
Washington decided not to run for a third term due to increased political battles between the Federalists and Republicans. In his Farewell Address, he warned the country against party politics and getting involved with European alliances and wars.

The Presidency of John Adams
John Adams, a Federalist and vice president of Washington, won the election in 1796 against Thomas Jefferson. However, Jefferson came in second in the Electoral College, putting candidates of two different parties in the offices of president and vice president. Adams allowed his cabinet members to make major decisions with little input from himself, as he spent most of his time back home in Quincy, Massachusetts. France, unhappy with American policies that economically favored the British (especially Jay's Treaty), impounded several American ships going to England and announced that the American sailors would be treated as pirates. In the "XYZ Affair," French Minister Talleyrand informed the Americans that a bribe would have to be paid before diplomatic negotiations could begin, infuriating Americans. The diplomats refused to pay, and Adams announced the buildup of the navy in preparation for war with France; trading with France was suspended temporarily, and American ships were authorized to attack French ships. After Napoleon took power, the two countries met again at the Convention of 1800. America received compensation for ships that had been seized by France, and it also was freed from its diplomatic entanglements with France.

The Alien and Sedition Acts
Adams and his administration supported several measures as a result of criticism against Adams's policies during the problems with France. The Alien Act gave the president the right to deport any immigrant felt to be "dangerous to the peace and safety of the U.S.," and the Sedition Act allowed the administration to prohibit any attacks on the president or Congress deemed to be "malicious"; twenty Republican journalists and politicians were arrested under this act, with some going to jail. The Kentucky and Virginia Resolves proclaimed that states had the right to not enforce laws that were unconstitutional, such as the Sedition Act (which would later be the philosophy of Southern states leading up to the Civil War and again during the civil rights struggles).

Chapter 6
Chapter 6: The Jeffersonian Revolution (1800-1820) contains the following topics:
 * The Election of 1800
 * Reform of the Courts
 * Westward Expansion
 * Political Tensions and the Strange Case of Aaron Burr
 * European War Spills Over to America (Again)
 * The War of 1812
 * The American System
 * The Missouri Compromise

The Election of 1800
The election in 1800 was between John Adams (with VP Charles Pinckney) and Thomas Jefferson (with VP Aaron Burr). Jefferson and Burr each received 73 votes, throwing the election to the House of Representatives; on the 36th ballot, Jefferson was elected president after Alexander Hamilton convinced Federalists to switch their votes to Jefferson (as he believed Burr was unfit for president). The Twelfth Amendment of 1804 stated that the Electoral College could vote for president and vice president separately. Following Jefferson's election, the Federalists who had been in power peacefully gave up their power to the Republicans. Jefferson implemented Republican policies as soon as he took office in order to cut back Adams's growth of the federal government: the Alien and Sedition Acts were not renewed, taxes (such as the one on whiskey) were eliminated, and Jefferson opposed future expansion of the national debt. However, Jefferson did support a national bank as president, as he believed that economic growth was dependent on it.

Reform of the Courts
Congress passed the Judiciary Act several weeks before Jefferson took office, which created new federal courts, and in a series of midnight appointments, Adams appointed Federalists to all of the new positions. The Republican Congress repealed the Judiciary Act almost immediately and impeached two Federalist judges. John Marshall, a Federalist, was appointed chief justice by Adams and served from 1801-1835, serving to improve the federal court system. He increased the power of the Supreme Court in the 1803 Marbury v. Madison. William Marbury was appointed by Adams to be justice of the peace for D.C., but James Madison (who was secretary of state under Jefferson) refused to issue the appointment letter. Marbury sued, and Marshall ruled that the Court did not have the power to force Madison to act, but that it did have the right to judge the constitutionality of federal laws and decisions, beginning the process of judicial review that made the judiciary branch equal to the executive and legislative.

Westward Expansion
Due to his view for America as an agricultural society, Jefferson encouraged expansion into the area between the Appalachians and the Mississippi River. Over 1 million settlers lived there in 1800, and in 1804, it became even easier to settle there, as 160 acres of land could be purchased for a down payment of $80. Settlers sometimes settled on land owned by Native Americans; Jefferson believed that by showing the natives the benefits of farming, they would integrate into the United States. However, under Jefferson began a decades-long policy of forcing natives into treaties that gave up more and more of their land. France regained the Louisiana territory in secret treaties with Spain in 1801 and 1802. War with France was a growing fear in America, as Napoleon also wanted to control Haiti, and the Spanish began to refuse American ships to store products in New Orleans. Jefferson sent Virginia governor James Monroe to France to purchase land, and since Napoleon needed money for his army, he sold the Louisiana Territory to the U.S. for $15 million. The Louisiana Purchase was ratified by Congress in 1803, although Northeastern Federalists were opposed to it, as they thought it would decrease their power. Although the Constitution did not state that the federal government had the right to purchase new land, Jefferson believed that it was essential for the growth of the country. The Lewis and Clark Expedition of nearly 50 men began in 1804 and lasted two years; they brought back information about the possibilities of further expansion in the West.

Chapter 7
Chapter 7: The Rise of Manufacturing and the Age of Jackson (1820-1845) contains the following topics:
 * The Growth of the Factory
 * The Monroe Doctrine
 * Policy Toward Native Americans
 * The Second Great Awakening
 * Political Reform: The Jacksonian Era (1829-1841)
 * The Election of 1824
 * The 1828 Presidential Election
 * Jackson as President
 * The Nullification Controversy
 * The Bank Crisis
 * The Whig Party: A Challenge to the Democratic-Republicans

The Growth of the Factory
Almost all products made in America were completed using the putting-out system, a system borrowed from Europe, before 1820. Under it, merchants would buy raw materials, recruit farm families to do the work, and then sell the finished product. In the late 1780s, water power-driven machines and interchangeable parts allowed textile factories to emerge in New England and the Middle States. The cotton gin was invented in the 1790s, and by 1840, the textile industry employed nearly 75,000 workers (almost half of them women). The "Lowell System" of hiring young women temporarily in horrible-condition jobs allowed a constant turnover of workers and kept worker demands low. An economic middle class of manufacturers and bankers, as well as factory towns, began to grow. An economic panic in 1819 was caused by the recovery of European economies following the wars, money policies of the National Bank, and the efforts of National Bank officials to enrich themselves through speculation. Worker strikes and calls for shorter workdays began in the 1830s, and by the 1840s, a real labor movement developed in the textile industry.

The Monroe Doctrine
Because many in Latin America and the U.S. felt that the Spanish and French might sent armies to reassert their control over the Americas, President Monroe enacted the Monroe Doctrine, which stated that countries in the Western Hemisphere were off limits to European control.

Policy Toward Native Americans
Conflict had ensued between Native Americans and settlers on their land east of the Mississippi River, so in 1824, Monroe proposed moving all tribes west of the Mississippi, promising that settlers would never bother them. In the 1831 decision Cherokee Nation v. Georgia, which resulted from a dispute over land in that state, Chief Justice Marshall affirmed that the Cherokee had a right to the lands that they possessed; however, he stated that Native Americans had no real standing in court because they were not a state or a foreign country. Even though the Constitution states that the executive branch is to enforce the laws or decisions of the other two branches, President Andrew Jackson, who was known for his successful fights against Indians, refused to enforce Marshall's decision. The Removal Act of 1830 authorized the removal of all tribes east of the Mississippi. Tribes were forced to move beginning in 1831, and in 1838, they were finally marched west at gunpoint in the Trail of Tears. Nearly one-third of them died along the way, and many were never able to adjust to the environment west of the Mississippi; Indiana resistance continued in Florida until 1841.

The Second Great Awakening
In the midst of many transformations from 1800-1830, such as the rise of industry, the commercialization of cities, westernization, and transportation improvements, the Second Great Awakening reaffirmed the role of religion in the lives of believers. Preachers such as Timothy Dwight and Charles Finney proclaimed that one's actions on earth played at least some role in their fate after death. Revival meetings would cause followers to faint, speak in tongues, or writhe uncontrollably. The Awakening began in rural areas, but spread to the cities by the 1820s; Evangelical sects such as Methodists and Baptists grew in popularity. Many women worked as volunteers for Protestant churches, and many of these churches set up academies to educate women. Many individuals wanted to use their religious enthusiasm to reform society; Dorothea Dix advocated for better treatment of the mentally ill, a prison movement and a temperance movement developed, and Horace Mann spoke out for formal education for all children. In the 1820s and 1830s, the abolitionist movement gained a large number of supporters who considered slavery to be a sin. William Lloyd Garrison founded The Liberator, in antislavery newspaper, in 1831. The American Colonization Society opposed slavery because it encouraged contact between blacks and whites; members urged slave owners to send their slaves back to Africa. Frederick Douglass, an ex-slave, wrote the Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass in 1845, and in 1831, Nat Turner, a Virginian slave, organized a revolt that killed 60 whites. The revolt was oppressed, and Black Codes and other restrictions on slaves became more harsh in the South.

Political Reform: The Jacksonian Era (1829-1841)
Egalitarianism grew during this period; in 1800, only five states chose electors to the Electoral College by popular vote, but by 1824, 18 of the 24 states did this. Banners, posters, buttons, and hats became key campaign items, and the property qualification had been eliminated in most states by 1824.

The Election of 1824
Four candidates ran in the election of 1824, all of whom considered themselves Republicans (or, as they were commonly called at this time, Democratic-Republicans): William Crawford, Henry Clay, John Quincy Adams, and Andrew Jackson. Jackson won the popular vote, but only 38% of the electoral vote. The election was then turned over to the House, where Speaker Henry Clay threw his support to Adams. Adams won the vote in the House and appointed Clay to the position of secretary of state. Supporters of Jackson did everything they could to sabotage Adams's presidency, as they believed there was a "corrupt bargain" between him and Clay.

The 1828 Presidential Election
The 1828 election against Quincy Adams and Jackson included campaign rallies and mudslinging. Jackson easily won the election; under him, the Democratic Party became the first real U.S. political party.

Jackson as President
Jackson frequently utilized his "Kitchen Cabinet" (the inner circle of his political supporters) instead of his appointed cabinet, as well as the spoils system. Jackson favored smaller government and wanted to restore Jefferson's view of an agricultural America. He appointed Roger B. Taney as chief justice at the end of his presidency; Taney would later validate almost all of Jackson's decisions favoring states rights. Despite his opposition to large government, Jackson increased the power of the presidency, and he opposed reform of the slave system.

The Nullification Controversy
Congress passed a bill in 1828 authorizing tariffs on imported manufacturing of cloth and iron, prompting legislators in South Carolina to revisit nullification; Vice President John C. Calhoun of South Carolina even stated that nullification was necessary to protect states from the tyranny of the federal government. During the Webster-Hayne Debate (between Robert Hayne and Daniel Webster) in the Senate, Webster predicted potential war if nullification were to occur. Jackson, while a supporter of states rights, strongly opposed nullification. A crisis ensued when new tariffs were imposed and, in November 1832, a convention in South Carolina voted to nullify the law; Jackson moved troops into South Carolina to collect the tariffs, Congress passed the Force Act (authorizing Jackson's decisions), and Calhoun resigned as vice president. Congress managed to pass a bill, acceptable to South Carolina, that would lower the tariffs.

The Bank Crisis
The second U.S. bank, chartered in 1816, was looked at suspiciously by Jackson, who opposed government involvement in the economy. Henry Clay decided to use the Bank as a campaign issue in a potential run for president in 1832, believing public opinion would swing supporters his way; however, Jackson vetoed the rechartering of the bank, proclaiming that it served "special interests and little else." This increased his popularity and ensured his reelection. In 1833, in an attempt to destroy the national bank, Jackson ordered that money be removed from it and placed in state or local banks; however, Nicholas Biddle, the manager of the bank, increased interest rates and called in loans that had been made to state banks. This Bank War eventually caused the panic of 1837 and a depression that would last into the 1840s.

The Whig Party: A Challenge to the Democratic-Republicans
The Whig Party emerged as the major opposition to the Democrats, and the two parties battled for elections throughout the 1830s and 1840s. The Democrats mainly supported the Jeffersonian ideals: limited government and opposition to urbanization and industrialization. The Whigs favored more government involvement in commercial activities. Democrat Martin Van Buren won the 1836 election, but Whig William Henry Harrison was elected in 1840 (however, he died after a month and was succeeded by John Tyler). Developments in Texas and American expansionism would be important issues during Tyler's presidency.

Chapter 8
Chapter 8: The Union Expanded and Challenged (1835-1860) contains the following topics:
 * The Ideology of Manifest Destiny
 * "Remember the Alamo!"
 * The Pivotal Election of 1844
 * War with Mexico
 * Political Challenges of the 1850s
 * Effects of the Compromise of 1850
 * The Presidency of Franklin Pierce
 * The Return of Sectional Conflict
 * "Bleeding Kansas": Slave or Free?
 * The Dred Scot Decision
 * The Lincoln-Douglas Debates
 * John Brown's Raid
 * The Presidential Election of 1860

The Ideology of Manifest Destiny
Manifest destiny fueled the continued American expansion westward; people began to express that it was "God's plan" that America expand beyond the Mississippi. Democratic newspaperman John O'Sullivan explicitly supported manifest destiny in 1845. Many Americans, especially those in the Ohio Valley, began to catch "Oregon Fever" by 1842, as they desired the mild climate and fur trading industry in the Oregon territory. Since the 1830s, Americans had been travelling across the six-month Oregon Trail. Over 5,000 had settled in the Oregon territory by 1845, which was controlled by both America and the British; the Oregon Treaty of 1846 gave most of Oregon to the Americas. Spain's California territory also attracted American settlers, who began to arrive there in the 1830s.

"Remember the Alamo!"
Mexico, which had gained its independence from Spain in 1821, attempted to economically develop Texas, its northernmost province; therefore, Americans who agreed to become Mexican citizens, become Catholic, and encourage other Americans to come to Mexico were given large tracts of land. Nearly 30,000 of these settlers existed by 1836. Because many of these settlers didn't follow through with their promises, the Mexican government attempted to reassert its control. In 1836, American settlers and some Mexicans in Texas revolted; on March 2, they declared that Texas was an independent state and established a pro-slavery constitution. 165 Texans, led by Davey Crockett and Jim Bowie, were defeated at the Alamo on March 6 by over 3,000 Mexican soldiers, but their cry of "Remember the Alamo!" became the rallying cry of Texan independence. A declaration of independence was issued in early March by a convention of Texans opposed to Mexican rule. On April 21, the Mexican army was defeated, and the Republic of Texas was proclaimed (of which General Sam Houston was its president). While most Texans and Andrew Jackson favored the annexation of Texas by the United States, the Whigs were against it, as they feared war with Mexico and domestic dissension. Abolitionists were also opposed to it, as they feared the entry of another slave state. Because Jackson feared that annexation would hurt the chances of his chosen successor, Martin Van Buren, in the 1836 election, he never acted on the issue (the Republic of Texas thus looked to Europe for potential allies). Van Buren also never acted on the issue. William Henry Harrison defeated Van Buren in the 1840 election, but died one month later; his vice president, John Tyler (a Southerner), favored annexation and negotiated with the Texans on a treaty by mid-1844. Secretary of State Calhoun wrote a note to the British government stating that continuation of slavery would be good for Texas, which doomed the treaty when it went to the Senate for approval.

The Pivotal Election of 1844
Democrat James K. Polk was elected president in 1844 and, since he was not one of the announced candidates before the Democratic convention of that year, he became the first American dark horse candidate president. Southern interests increasingly influenced Democratic policies, and the Walker Tariff of 1846 established a very low tariff on imported goods (delighting the South and upsetting the North). Abolitionism entered presidential politics in 1844; the Liberty Party, an abolitionist party, nominated James Birney as its presidentia candidate. Abolitionism (as well as the sectional divisions that it fostered) became a permanent part of politics until the Civil War. Manifest destiny was the most important issue facing America at the time; Polk's support of expansionism is generally considered to be a major reason for him having been elected. By December 1845, Texas entered the Union, and expansionism and slavery became increasingly intertwined issues (regarding the status of slavery in new territory). The North and South were determined to have the number of slave and free states remain equal.

War with Mexico
Underlying issues of the Mexican-American War included patriotic Mexicans who considered Texas to still be a part of their country and economic interests of groups in both countries; however, the main reasons was Polk's determination to occupy the lands all the way to the Pacific and his willingness to use force to accomplish it. Polk had encouraged settlers in Mexico to occupy land further down than the Texan border, and he sent a diplomat named John Slidell to Mexico City in October 1845 with an offer to buy the territory between the Nueces and the Rio Grande Rivers for $5 million, California for $25 million, and other Mexican territory for $5 million (the Mexican government never even received Slidell). In 1846, Polk sent a force commanded by General Zachary Taylor to defend territory between the Nueces and Rio Grande, and in April, part of the force was ambushed by the Mexican army. On May 13, 1846, Congress issued a declaration of war against Mexico. American naval and infantry forces arrived in California in late 1845 as a show of American force, and shortly after the declaration of war, settlers revolted (supported by infantry forces commanded by John C. Fremont), and on July 4, 1846, the Bear Flag Republic was proclaimed in the California territory. In Mexico itself, forces commanded by Taylor easily won battles over the Mexican army in late 1846 and early 1847. The Mexican government refused to negotiate or surrender, so Polk sent a force under General Winfield Scott to occupy Mexico City. He landed on Mexican territory on March 8, 1847, and was victorious in several battles; on September 13, his army entered Mexico City, but Mexicans continued guerrilla warfare well into 1848. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed on February 2, 1848, officially ending the war. The U.S. acquired Texas, New Mexico, and California for $15 million. In 1846, David Wilmot, a Democratic representative from Pennsylvania, introduced an amendment to a bill regarding war funding stating that slavery could not exist in any new territory acquired from Mexico; the Wilmot Proviso was passed by the House four times, but rejected by the Senate each time. Polk's compromise decision was to continue the line drawn by the Missouri Compromise out to the Pacific Ocean. Both Democrats and Whigs stayed away from the issue of slavery in 1848; Zachary Taylor was elected as a Whig due to his war record. Some members of the Liberty Party, along with defectors from the Whigs and Democrats, formed the Free-Soil Party, whose main purpose was to appose slavery in the new territories. They nominated former president Van Buren, who won 10 percent of the vote.

Political Challenges of the 1850s
By the 1850s, the issue of slavery was forefront. The population of California increased from 1848-1849 due to the discovery of gold; over 80,000 "forty-niners" entered the state in this time, but law enforcement was lacking. Taylor encouraged California and New Mexico to draft constitutions and apply for statehood, which both did from 1849-1850 (with slavery prohibited in both). Angry Southern representatives met at a convention in which they discussed leaving the Union, as most of California's territory was below the Missouri Compromise line. Henry Clay spoke against John C. Calhoun's secessionist arguments and wrote the Compromise of 1850: California entered the Union as a free state, while New Mexico and Utah would vote regarding the slave issue. The slave trade was also eliminated in Washington, D.C. However, provisions of the Fugitive Slave Act were toughened, and slavery was allowed to continue in Washington when Congress stated that it didn't have jurisdiction over interstate slave trade. Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois was a strong proponent of the compromise, and it passed after eight months of debate. The growing majority of free states increased tensions between the North and the South from 1850-1860. In the election of 1852, slavery was once again avoided; another dark horse candidate, Democrat Franklin Pierce, won the presidency.

Effects of the Compromise of 1850
The strengthening of the Fugitive Slave Act bothered Northerners. Judges in the North would determine the fate of accused escaped slaves, and accused runaways were denied jury proceedings and often denied the right to testify in their own trials. Penalties were imposed on Northerners who helped slaves escape or who hid slaves. Uncle Tob's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe was written as a response to this act and sold nearly 275,000 copies in its first year.

The Presidency of Franklin Pierce
Pierce had a pro-expansionism foreign policy.

Chapter 9
Chapter 9: The Union Divided: The Civil War (1861-1865) contains the following topics:
 * Advantages of the North and South in the War
 * The Attack on Fort Sumter and the Beginning of the War
 * War Aims and Strategies
 * Developments in the South and in the North
 * The Emancipation Proclamation
 * 1863: The War Tips to the North
 * War Weariness in the North and South
 * The End of the Confederacy