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Methods of gaining situational awareness

Developing better Situation awareness (SA) is of interest to both trainers and trainees especially those operating in high risk environments where referencing additional information on a database is not convenient, for example whilst Vehicle driving or during emergency medical treatment. Simulations can help provide context and technical challenge allowing the development SA to be observed,

Endsley's Three Stage Model of Perception, Comprehension and Projection provides a basis for discussing situational awareness, this was originally developed with pilots and aircrew it remains the most popular model in Europe and America. Several other models exist, Stanton compares Endsley's model to the Interactive Sub-systems approach, which is based on Russian Activity Theory and the Perpetual Cycle  concept.

Activity Theory provides a lens through which a group dynamic can be analysed, looking at how a person conducts themselves under stressful conditions as an individual and within a group setting can provide educators and professionals with a useful insight.

The concept of Perpetual Cycle initially developed by the psychologist Ulric Neisser states that while awake, human cognition is continually working as a perpetual process, it is not based on the individual or the environment but focusses on the interaction of a human in the world.

The difference between these models is based on the extent to which they are process driven or goal focussed and how much emphasis they allow for human error and social influence.

Mica Endsley defends her model and agrees with critics that it would be beneficial to concentrate further research into the projection stage The Human Factors community continue to debate whether SA is a theory or a concept Endsley agrees that the practical benefits for those teaching and training decision making in high risk environments is of value.

Improving Perception with Mindfulness Training

Considering SA as externally directed consciousness or as Endsley defined it as “knowing what’s going on” helps to introduce Mindfulness as a practical technique for training and improving SA.

Mindfulness is the ability to be aware of where we are and what we are doing, this includes knowing where our attention is focussed and what human factors are influencing the environment we are in. Being mindful can help with remaining non reactive to stressors and not becoming overwhelmed by the situation around us.

Jon Kabat-Zinn describes mindfulness as intentional, non-judgmental attention (1994) his work reframed Buddhist spirituality for Western society by removing a sense of right or wrong it is close, clear-minded attention to, or awareness of, what is perceived in the present.

The goal of mindfulness is to increase awareness of our cognitive, emotional and physical processes this has advantages that can help improve Situation Awareness.

Attentional focus as a concept was proposed by Niedeffer this is the focus of a persons attention at a particular moment being either wide with an ability to take in a lot of information or narrow with a reduced capacity. An individuals focus of consciousness may move from being external to internal during periods of increased stress this can lead to a reduction in teamwork and communication.

Introducing aspects of Mindfulness Training at the perception stage of the Three Stage Model of SA can help manage stress and expand a persons awareness of what is happening around them in the present moment. This increased perception then allows more information to be processed during the comprehension stage which relies heavily on education and experience and is not affected as much by mindfulness training. Simulations can provide opportunities to scientifically test the efficacy of mindfulness training with real life scenarios for example in the training of medical students.

A practical Mindful Session for nurses consisted of 3 deep breaths followed by a body scan for sensations of discomfort or stress then pause for six seconds to identity any emotions.

This intervention effectively slowed the pace allowing time to be non reactive and encourage cognitive thinking. The other benefits include an opportunity to identify the location of Attentional Focus and establish which Human Factors might be influencing the situation.

Mindfulness training has been criticised as being nothing more than concentration training Purser its roots in religion may prove too much of a deterrent for some so alternative ways of reframing the benefits are being developed for example industries interested in the potential of improving SA through mindfulness training.

The Aviation industry is interested in the potential benefits of pilots who are mindful. A study of pilots in China compared mindful character trait, risk perception, and incident involvement, the results show that pilots who are mindful have less involvement in incidents.

Training Medical Students in mindfulness techniques when dealing with life threatening situations during simulation. A study of Norwegian combat pilots measured mindfulness, mental skills, and performance-related anxiety found that mindfulness training may complement existing high performance training.

Human Factors and developing Comprehension.

Human Factors is an area of psychology and physiology that attempts to reduce human error, improve safety, and productivity.

Being aware of Human Factors within a Situation awareness framework can inform the individual or group of possible Cognitive bias es associated with their environment.

These Cognitive biases can be established when the majority of our experiences have had positive outcomes leading to a false understanding of the risk being taken, Cognitive Biases exist in Clinical Medicine and have been identified as contributing significantly in medical errors, the Martin Bromley case study highlights a scenario where medical professionals lost overall awareness of the situation.

The ability to retain an awareness of the situation while new information is present remains challenging publishing research papers for doctors to read might work in a professional context. However, in a recreational context alternative methods of educating those at risk remains a challenge.

Avalanche rescue is an example of a high risk environment where human factors played an important factor in serious accidents. Increasing awareness and understanding of these common Human Factors could save lives. Ian McGammon identified six heuristic traps that recreation and professional skiers might fall into when they are skiing away from mechanical prepared pistes. The acronym FACETS is a dangerous type of snow crystal it component parts help backcountry skiers remember some of these popular heuristic traps.


 * Familiarity. How many times have they skied that slope and its been fine, this builds up a cognitive bias that this environment is safe.
 * Acceptance of fixation on the team objective and not wanting to spoil the party by turning back or suggesting that the plan is unsafe.
 * Commitment is another way of fixing on a goal due to the amount of effort or money already invested in getting there.
 * Expert halo is the absolving of responsibility to another person based on an individuals comparison of their own experience and judgements with others in the group.
 * Tracks. Refers to fresh ski tracks and their scarcity, this can produce a competitive frenzy and a fear of missing out on the best snow.
 * Social Proof because there are lots of other people out skiing today it feels safer.

This is an example of how experts combine the psychology of Situation Awareness with the practical and real risk of avalanche in a format that is accessible for the recreational skier and mountain professional.

Virtual Reality may provide close to real life experiences helping to develop SA in environments where high risk is involved for example with fire fighters and adventure sports.

References