User:Percival van Cleve/sandbox

Pushpin map (multiple options)

Sophocles' (no 's ending)

Sandra Fluke controversy:

http://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/style/rush-limbaugh-apologizes-again-but-advertisers-continue-to-sever-ties/2012/03/05/gIQAmM3WtR_story.html

Botswana:

Among Anaya's recommendations in his report to the United Nations Human Rights Council was that development programs should promote, in consultation with indigenous communities such as the San people and Bakgalagadi people, activities in harmony with the culture of those communities such as traditional hunting and gathering activities.

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&amp;mdash; em dash &mdash;

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MOS:NDASH Spaced en dash –


 * Likelihood of CP: when parents punished as children
 * Risk of injury from CP? (Gershoff 2008 p. 7,17; Gershoff 2010, Durrant & Ensom 2012)
 * Less well-developed conscience (Straus 2005)

Helpful sources
San people:


 * Stephen McLoughlin, 2014. The Structural Prevention of Mass Atrocities: Understanding Risk and Resilience
 * Stephen McLoughlin, 2014. The Structural Prevention of Mass Atrocities: Understanding Risk and Resilience

Central Kalahari Game Reserve:



Child development:


 * The Science of Early Childhood Development, National Scientific Council on the Developing Child
 * From Neurons to Neighborhoods: The science of early childhood development, Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000

Violence against children:


 * World Report on Violence Against Children, Secretary-General of the United Nations

Corporal punishment in the home:
 * Corporal Punishment and Physical Abuse: Population-Based Trends for Three to Eleven Year Old Children in the United States
 * Straus M.A. 2005
 * Report to the Minister for Social Development and Employment: pursuant to section 7(2) of the Crimes (substituted section 59) Act New Zealand Ministry of Social Development
 * Responses by the Federal Republic of Germany I. LEGAL FRAMEWORK May 2005
 * Education Encyclopedia (forced exertion)
 * the courts, the Charter, and the schools (ditto)

United States:


 * On hitting children: a review of corporal punishment in the United States (2010) (I.L.L.)

Adverse Childhood Experiences Study:


 * SAMHSA.GOV Outline of findings
 * adverse childhood experiences (ACE) study CDC.GOV
 * The Origins of Addiction: Evidence from the Adverse Childhood Experiences Study
 * The Relation Between Adverse Childhood Experiences and Adult Health: Turning Gold into Lead
 * Lifelong Effects of Early Childhood Adversity and Toxic Stress
 * The Effects of childhood stress on health across the lifespan

Social stress/Stress in childhood:
 * Protecting Children From Toxic Stress
 * Young Children Develop in an Environment of Relationships: Working Paper No. 1
 * Excessive Stress Disrupts the Architecture of the Developing Brain: Working Paper No. 3
 * The Foundations of Lifelong Health Are Built in Early Childhood

Child abuse:


 * Crosson-Tower 2014 OCLC 841198173
 * Crosson-Tower 2008 OCLC 150902303
 * Miller-Perrin & Perrin 2013 OCLC 819751954
 * McCoy & Keen 2014 OCLC 878102727
 * Finkelhor 2008
 * National Research Council, Understanding Child Abuse and Neglect, 1993
 * Violence and Injury Prevention: Child maltreatment, World Health Organization (World Report on Violence and Health, chapter 3)
 * Child abuse and neglect by parents and other caregivers, World Health Organization
 * Effects of child abuse and neglect for children and adolescents, Child Family Community Australia
 * Understanding the Effects of Maltreatment on Brain Development Child Welfare Information Gateway
 * Prevalence of Individual Adverse Childhood Experiences, CDC
 * The Science of Neglect: The Persistent Absence of Responsive Care Disrupts the Developing Brain: Working Paper No. 12
 * The social construction of child abuse
 * Child abuse law and policy across boundaries Oxford legal studies
 * Child abuse law and policy across boundaries Oxford legal studies

Domestic violence:

Siegel, R.B. (1996). "'The Rule of Love': Wife Beating as Prerogative and Privacy" (PDF).

History of war:


 * "Hard-wired for war?"
 * "The myth of the ‘Brutal Savage’"

BrainDev
Early abuse and neglect can alter brain functioning. If needed stimulation and nurturance is lacking, such as when a child's caretakers are indifferent, hostile, depressed, or cognitively impaired, a child's brain development may be impaired. Researchers believe that there are sensitive periods in brain development when experiences may have heightened effects on development of certain traits. For instance, infants, who are genetically predisposed to develop strong bonds of attachment to a primary caregiver, may not be able to form such bonds if they experience severe neglect with little one-on-one interaction.

Babies are born with the capacity for implicit memory, which means that they can perceive their environment and recall it in certain unconscious ways. Such early implicit memories may have a significant effect on later attachment relationships.

Child abuse
[https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Child_abuse&diff=708944949&oldid=708942222 Definitions of child abuse or child maltreatment can also vary across the sectors of society which deal with the issue, such as child protection agencies, legal and medical communities, public health officials, researchers, practitioners, and child advocates. Since members of these various fields tend to use their own definitions, communication across disciplines can be limited, hampering efforts to identify, assess, track, treat, and prevent child maltreatment.]

The cited pages from Hersen (2011): "Lack of clarity and consistency of definitions of child abuse adds to the complexity of child abuse assessment [...] Moreover, definitions of various abuse of child abuse vary widely" (p. 550) and Fisher & Lab (2010): "Due to the lack of standard definitions of child abuse and neglect, reporting suspected child abuse and neglect is surrounded by much confusion and ambiguity" (p. 86) only vaguely relate to the article text, so I removed these citations. A more relevant source to add here would be Child maltreatment: An introduction (1999), pp. 14–15: "Various child advocates and professionals involved in the field of child maltreatment define the problem differently, depending [...] on their professional goals and purpose."

I also find it curious that such caution is being urged in relation to the CDC being "U.S.-centric" while the sources I removed are equally so; for instance, Hersen (2011) states, "For the purpose of this chapter, child abuse will be defined in a manner consistent with the American Professional Society on the Abuse of Children" (p. 550); Fisher & Lab (2010) are concerned mainly with mandatory reporting laws in the United States; and Conley (2010) focuses on "Anglo-American countries such as the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom" (p. 53). —Coconutporkpie (talk) 02:32, 23 March 2016 (UTC)

Page 69 of The Oxford Handbook of Poverty and Child Development and page 76 of Safeguarding and Protecting Children in the Early Years certainly appear to support the statement that some professionals and authors consider unintentional neglect to be different from abuse. On the other hand, Pages 14–18 of Child Neglect: Identification and Assessment only mention one source arguing that neglect is ususally unintentional. To render this as "some authors" would definitely be Weasel wording, in that it implies multiple separate sources. Ditto for "some health professionals, authors, and laws" as a summary of the other sources mentioned. That might be OK for a lead section written in Summary style, but for the main text of any article, No original research is clear that "Even with well-sourced material, if you use it out of context, or to reach or imply a conclusion not directly and explicitly supported by the source, you are engaging in original research". This applies as well to page 279 of Child Development From Infancy to Adolescence: An Active Learning Approach; which does not specifically link neglect with unintentional acts. Describing abuse as "deliberate and intentional" as they do does not imply that neglect is necessarily unintentional, even when they are treated separately. This source also states that "Maltreatment [i.e. abuse and neglect] includes any act by a parent or caregiver that results in harm or potential harm to a child" in line with the CDC's definition: "Any act or series of acts of commission or omission by a parent or other caregiver that results in harm, potential for harm, or threat of harm to a child". This contradicts any definition of neglect as being mainly solely unintentional [wording modified 15:46, 19 March 2016 (UTC)].


 * Child maltreatment: An introduction (1999), pp. 14–15: "Various child advocates and professionals involved in the field of child maltreatment define the problem differently, depending [...] on their professional goals and purpose."
 * Ibid, p. 50: "This lack of definitional consensus has significantly impeded understanding about the very meaning of child maltreatment [...] In the final analysis, definitional ambiguity has played a key role in delaying the development of of effective interventions and solutions."
 * Ibid, p. 240: "Terms such as maltreatment, abuse, and neglect are not objectively defined. Because the specific meanings of these terms are socially constructed, they vary dramatically from one culture to the next [...] Definitions vary, depending on their purpose; a social worker, therapist, researcher, or police officer may each mean something different when referring to child maltreatment."
 * Child abuse and neglect : definitions, classifications, and a framework for research (2006), p. 45: "[The 1993 NRC study] emphasized the need to view child maltreatment within an ecological and developmental context."
 * Ibid, pp. 39–40: "The NRC panel did not develop its own definitions of child abuse and neglect, but drew instead on an earlier definition [...] The NICHD conference recommended that maltreatment be defined as: 'Behavior towards another person, which is (a) outside the norms of conduct, and (b) entails a substantial risk of causing physical or emotional harm. Behaviors included will consist of actions and omissions, ones that are intentional and ones that are unintentional..."
 * Ibid, p. 109: (definitions of neglect)
 * Understanding Child Abuse and Neglect (1993)

Article citations:


 * Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, p. 412: "Despite attempts to develop one, there is no standardized definition of what constitutes child abuse and definitions vary amongst professionals, over time, and between social and cultural groups." (quotes WHO definition)
 * Social Work and Social Development: Theories and Skills for Developmental Social Work, chapter 2: "Child maltreatment is not a clear and objective reality. It is rather a social construction that is culturally defined and shaped by prevailing values and norms about children, child development, and parenting..." (Anglo-American focus)
 * Clinician's Handbook of Child Behavioral Assessment, p. 550: "Lack of clarity and consistency of definitions of child abuse adds to the complexity of child abuse assessment [...] Moreover, definitions of various abuse of child abuse vary widely." (uses ASPCAN definition per Berliner & Elliot 2002, Kolko 2002, others)
 * Encyclopedia of Victimology and Crime Prevention, p. 86: "Due to the lack of standard definitions of child abuse and neglect, reporting suspected child abuse and neglect is surrounded by much confusion and ambiguity."

The CDC reports the lifetime economic burden represented by new cases of child maltreatment at $124 billion in the United States.

Child neglect

 * Definitions of Child Abuse and Neglect (2014): "States recognize the different types of abuse in their definitions, including physical abuse, neglect, sexual abuse, and emotional abuse."
 * Acts of Omission: An Overview of Child Neglect (2012): "Neglect accounts for over three-quarters of confirmed cases of child maltreatment in the United States—far more than physical or sexual abuse—but it continues to receive less attention from practitioners, researchers, and the media. Some reasons may be that neglect is not well understood and is difficult to identify, prevent, and treat effectively."

StateDept
While the government respected the 2006 High Court ruling on a suit filed by 189 Basarwa regarding their forced relocation, it continued to interpret the ruling to allow only the 189 actual applicants and their spouses and minor children to return to the CKGR. The court ruled the applicants were entitled to return to the CKGR without entry permits and to be issued permits to hunt in designated wildlife management areas, which are not located in the CKGR. The children and other family members of the original applicants were not permitted to return to the CKGR without entry permits. Many of the Basarwa and their supporters continued to object to the government’s narrow interpretation of this ruling. Negotiations between San representatives and the government regarding residency and hunting rights stalled after the court ruling provided the right to access water. In August 2013 attorneys for the Basarwa filed a High Court case in which the original complainants from the 2006 CKGR case appealed to the government for unrestricted access to the CKGR for their children and other relatives (i.e., permits not required). The case was dismissed for technical reasons, with permission given by the court to refile with a new application.

Government relocations continued during the year in the western settlement of Ranyane. On In May 2013, the High Court ruled the government must stop the relocation of families from the Ranyane settlement. NGOs reported that the government relocated 11 families from Ranyane after the High Court ruling and alleged that government officials installed themselves in Ranyane in order to conduct a campaign to induce residents to move from their village, in part by blocking access to the settlement’s only water supply. In response to a complaint filed on behalf of residents, on June 18 the court issued a restraining order prohibiting the government from relocating residents from Ranyane and from blocking access to the water pipe, entering any household without occupants’ permission, and removing residents without first notifying the community’s lawyers.

Architecture
"Toxic stress" is a term proposed by pediatrician Jack P. Shonkoff of the Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University to refer to chronic, excessive stress that exceeds a child's ability to cope, especially in the absence of supportive caregiving from adults.

Learning to cope with mild to moderate stress is a part of normal development in children; however, extreme, long-lasting stress in the absence of supportive relationships to buffer the effects of a heightened stress response can produce damage and weakening of bodily and brain systems, which can lead to diminished physical and mental health throughout a person's lifetime. Extreme exposure to such toxic stress can result in the stress response system becoming more highly sensitized to stressful events, producing increased wear and tear on physical systems through over-activation of the body's stress response. This wear and tear increases the later risk of various physical and mental illnesses.

Children whose mothers experience symptoms of depression often show elevated stress hormone levels in response to economic hardship or other adverse family conditions, more so than those children whose mothers are not depressed. Adverse early infant experiences, such as maternal neglect, as well as prenatal stress such as drug and alcohol exposure, can lead to immediate changes in children's behavior, hormones and brain systems, that may have adverse effects on memory, learning, and behavior throughout life.

ToxicStress
"The National Scientific Council on the Developing Child has proposed a conceptual taxonomy comprising 3 distinct types of stress responses (in contrast to the actual stressors themselves) in young children—positive, tolerable, and toxic—on the basis of postulated differences in their potential to cause enduring physiologic disruptions as a result of the intensity and duration of the response."



Links
"When school feels like jail". The Marshall Project.

Five Silver Bullets to Stopping Bullying: Step 2 – Allow for Mixed-Age Interactions

Lack of Free Play Among Children is Causing Harm, Say Experts in American Journal of Play (press release)

Play as a foundation for hunter-gatherer social existence American Journal of Play

The experience of countries that have outlawed all physical punishment Children Are Unbeatable! (prevention of harsh physical punishment/abuse: survey of European countries)

Report calls for prohibition in Scotland Children Are Unbeatable!

"'No, we don’t get a say, children just suffer the consequences': Children talk about family discipline" Dobbs, Smith, Taylor

Ending the physical punishment of children in the English speaking world:The impact of language, tradition and law Bernadette Saunders (2013)

Physical Punishment, Culture, and Rights: Current Issues for Professionals Joan Durrant (2008)

Trusting attitude toward children: Play Makes Us Human VI: Hunter-Gatherers’ Playful Parenting

...how it is destroyed: Trustful Parenting: Its Downfall and Potential Renaissance

...and why it's important for society: How Hunter-Gatherers Maintained Their Egalitarian Ways

Start With Why video

Environmental Crime
Poaching, ivory, deforestation, charcoal smuggling, terrorism

Ed Week
Morones, Alyssa (22 October 2013). "Corporal Punishment Persists in U.S. Schools." Education Week.

No federal policy;

According to The Supreme Court, the issue is for the states. 8th Amendment not applicable.

According to the OCR, 223,190 students physically punished in 2006.

Also, African-American students disproportionately physically punished 35.6 percent of students paddled vs. 17.1 percent of population surveyed.

Male students made up 78.3 percent.

According to Deborah Sendek of Center for Effective Discipline, use of school corporal punishment higher in small communities in rural areas.

Also Holden of SMU: http://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2014/07/17/school-district-ban-paddling-rural-areas-defend/12421465/

"Schools are the only public institution where hitting is allowed. It's not allowed in prisons, hospitals, mental institutions or the military."

"Spanking Lives On In Rural Florida Schools" (15 March 2012). NPR. (Mostly south and Mountain West)

1.5 million students paddled in 1976: The end of spanking? The Washington Post Magazine

AACAP
The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry "opposes the use of corporal punishment and supports legislation outlawing its use [in schools]", stating that "Research on corporal punishment has shown that it may be harmful", and "Supervising adults who willfully humiliate children and punish by force and pain are often causing more harm than they prevent".

National Congress of Parents and Teachers

National Education Association

Pediatricians
1989 61% American adults disapproved of corporal punishment in schools

1968:51%

Rationales

 * Religious (Prov 13:24—right, if not a duty to spank)
 * Disciplinary philosophy (CP build character, conscience, and respect for adults)
 * Beliefs concerning teachers' needs and rights (CP essential to maintain order & control) [now they call cops, docs, or mindfulness gurus]

Legal basis: US
Sims v. Board of Education (1971): "reasonable basis" for permitting school CP; civil, criminal rulings establish that student and parents must prove punishment caused lasting injury or applied with malice. Therefore, school CP can exceed allowable domestic CP

Ingraham: Eighth Amendment did not apply because of supervision by the community and other safeguards. Thus schools are the only public institution where physical punishment is allowed. Definition of "due process" also varies widely due to various conflicting court decisions.

SAM2003
US one of few industrialized countries allowing corporal punishment in schools.

SAM recommends banning school CP and urges "nonviolent means of classroom control".

Roots of US school corporal punishment traceable to England. English law of 1770: teachers in loco parentis (legal principle authorizing use in schools).

Sweden
Country report for Sweden Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children

Sweden's rules on corporal punishment lead the way The Independent

In 30 years without spanking, are Swedish children better behaved? Christian Science Monitor

Corporal punishment


"Corporal Punishment in Schools and its Effect on Academic Success Healthy Families and Communities Subcommittee: 2175 Rayburn H.O.B Washington, DC,: Apr 15, 2010"

Cairo Declaration on the Convention on the Rights of the Child and Islamic Jurisprudence. Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children.

"Ending corporal punishment of children". Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights.

"Corporal punishment policies around the world" CNN.com

"Spare the rod" (15 November 2014). The Economist.

Morones, Alyssa (22 October 2013). "Corporal Punishment Persists in U.S. Schools." Education Week.

Strauss, Valerie (18 September 2014). "19 states still allow corporal punishment in school". The Washington Post.

AAP (2000) "Corporal punishment in schools"

"Letter the House Education and Labor Committee on Corporal Punishment in Schools" National Education Association.

"Corporal Punishment in Schools" (September 2014). American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry.

“Corporal Punishment in Schools and Its Effect on Academic Success” Joint HRW/ACLU Statement

Hagee, Eli (11 November 2015). "When school feels like jail". The Marshall Project.

Welsh 1978: http://www.nospank.net/welsh1.htm

Towards Non-violent Schools: Prohibiting All Corporal Punishment: Global Report 2015 Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children, Save the Children.

Gershoff: Report on Physical Punishment in the United States: What Research Tells Us About Its Effects on Children (domestic violence)


 * cited in: "Policy Statement on Corporal Punishment" (30 July 2012). American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry.)

Library catalog search:

Welsh, R.S. (July 1978). "Delinquency, Corporal Punishment, and the Schools". Crime & Delinquency 24 (3): 336-354. doi:10.1177/001112877802400307.

Books
Straus, Corporal Punishment of Children in Theoretical Perspective

Physical Punishment in Childhood: The Rights of the Child; Bernadette J. Saunders, Chris Goddard ISBN 978-0-470-68256-2 286 pages February 2010

''Hitting with objects? Domestic violence?''

It Hurts You Inside: Children talking about smacking by Carolyne Willow, Tina Hyder

Phoenix
also called physical punishment of children...

Evidence: physical punishment children more likely to be "defiant and aggressive" in future; "increased mental health problems"; "greater risk of serious injury and physical abuse".

"Physical punishment" defined as use of physical force intended to cause "bodily pain or discomfort" to "correct or punish"; often used interchangeably with "corporal punishment" or physical discipline"; distinct from physically restraining child to protect from harm (in this context).

More likely to use: parents themselved physically punished, cultural background percieved to support use; socally disadvantaged; experiencing stressful circumstances; report frustration/aggravation with kids; under 30 years; child from 2–5 years; child has put self in danger or hurt another person.

Most studies show less "moral internalization", more defiance, less empathy with others.

Research suggests physical punishment causes more aggression. Longitudinal studies have found that parents do tend to physically punish children who are more aggressive to begin with; however, physical punishment also led to more aggressive behaviour, regardless of prior level of aggressiveness.

Numerous countries: behaviour problems including physical and verbal aggression, fighting, bullying, and other forms of antisocial behaviour.

Domestic violence: More physical punishment = more likely to act violently toward fam. members and intimate partners (research)

Psychological problems sim. to victims of physical abuse, but milder. Spanked children more likely to be injured by parents, most abuse takes place in context of p.p.

Possible reasons for ineffectiveness: ...

Six countries: anxiety (check against Social Sciences Encyclopedia)

Evidence links physical punishment in childhood with impaired mental health in adulthood, such as increased symptoms of depression.

Schools
Black parents approve (The Nation)?

Often hit on buttocks w/wooden paddle

Ingraham rationale: "no trend towards its elimination" (only 2 states banned in 77--more states enacted bans in years since)

US Dept. of Ed. (2004–05) 272,028 public school children

2005 poll: 23 percent support allowing teachers to spank children in school, 77 percent disapprove

Complex PTSD
Van der Kolk (2005); "Developmental Trauma Disorder"

Van der Kolk et al. (2009); "Proposal to include a developmental trauma disorder diagnosis for children and adolescents in DSM-V"

Domestic CP
http://stopspanking.org/research/

70% agree Hitting Kids: American Parenting and Physical Punishment

"No disciplinary measures are used which include any form of corporal punishment, any deprivation of food or drink, any restriction of visits or communication by phone or post, an y requirement that a young person wears distinctive or inappropriate clothes or the imposition of fines"

"Corporal punishment: Key issues". Australian Institute of Family Studies. March 2014.

Teachers Group
Gaia Movement USA—volunteers

Planet Aid

IICD

Tvind—"not a legal entity"

Durham, Michael (2 November 1996). "'Problem' youth to sue over cult school". The Observer (London). 

Durham, Michael (17 March 2000). "What price idealism?" Times Higher Education.

Durham, Michael (2 May 2000). "Cruel Mind Games – Inside the Secret World of a Cult". The Times (UK). 



Durham, Michael (17 December 2000). "Charity's recycling claims mislead public". The Independent (UK).

Wakefield, Rebecca (21 March 2002). "Trouble From Denmark". Miami New Times.

Stockman, Farah (7 April 2002). "Planet Aid's charity work draws worldwide scrutiny". Boston Globe. 

Cribb, Robert (26 April 2002). "Charity collected $1.7M, gave $0". Toronto Star. 

Miner, Michael (30 October 2003). "Truth in Advertising". Chicago Reader.

Eng, Monica; Jackson, David (13 February 2004). "Blurred vision". Chicago Tribune.

Eng, Monica; Jackson, David (13 February 2004). "Humanitarian work turns into servitude". Chicago Tribune.

"Tvind founder acquitted" (31 August 2006). Copenhagen Post (Denmark).

Werner, Anna (December 2006). "Behind the Green Box". KPIX-TV (San Francisco).

Willis, Jessica (11 February 2007). "Questions in Williamstown", The Berkshire Eagle (Pittsfield, Massachusetts). (Tvind timeline)

"Humanitarian fraudster convicted". Copenhagen Post (Denmark). 21 January 2009.

Idlebrook, Craig (4 April 2009). "A scam of planetary proportions?" The Bollard.

"USDA Suspicious of Danish Aid Organisation", Jyllands-Posten, Denmark, Dec. 28, 2009

Waterman, Michael (3 February 2010). "Mysterious Danish Group Builds Exotic Compound on Baja Coast". San Diego Reader.

Nordahl, Bjørn Olav; Sylte, Turid (23 October 2010). "Skreddersydd for svindel" (in Norwegian). Vårt Land (Norway). Follow-up reports (25-30 October 2010). English translation: "A Perfect Fit for Fraud". tvindalert.com.

Smith, Matt (8 June 2011). "Your Rags to Their Riches: Donated Clothes May Fund International Fugitive". San Francisco Weekly. full text

"Hjemme hos Amdi" (12 May 2013).

"‘Cult school’ leader sentenced to prison" (30 August 2013). Copenhagen Post (Denmark).

Living Earth's "Recycling" Program, Debunked!" (2 October 2015). Charity Watch.

USAgain
Rawe, Julie (29 June 2003). "Doing Business in a Box". Time (New York). (Poul Jorgensen)

2002 meta-analyses, criticism, and response
A 2002 meta-analytic study by Elizabeth Gershoff that combined 60 years of research on corporal punishment found that the only positive outcome of corporal punishment was immediate compliance; however, corporal punishment was associated with less long-term compliance. Corporal punishment was linked with nine other negative outcomes in children, including increased rates of aggression, delinquency, mental health problems, problems in relationships with parents, and likelihood of being physically abused. Her report concluded that corporal punishment of children is "associated with all child constructs, including higher levels of immediate compliance and aggression and lower levels of moral internalization and mental health."

Diana Baumrind and colleagues questioned the methods and conclusions of the studies included in Gershoff's review. They suggested that corporal punishment be defined for purposes of study as "the more moderate application of normative spanking within the context of a generally supportive parent-child relationship", concluding that the majority of the studies used in Gershoff's meta-analysis included "overly severe" forms of punishment and therefore did not sufficiently distinguish corporal punishment from abuse. In response, Gershoff argued that "aspects of parenting style have not been found to moderate the association between corporal punishment and children's behaviors or well-being", and that "Baumrind et al.'s (2002) assumption that only spanks or slaps using an open hand are normative is erroneous. According to the results of a 1995 Gallup survey of more than 900 parents reported by Straus and Stewart (1999)...more than one in four parents admit to using an object to hit their children". According to Gershoff, this was partly to account for the discrepancy in including what Baumrind and colleagues termed "overly severe" punishment; another factor was the inclusion of studies which also measured more severe techniques on the Conflict Tactics Scale, in addition to spanking and slapping. According to Gershoff, the CTS is "the closest thing to a standard measure of corporal punishment; to omit it would mean to eliminate a large number of studies across the 11 meta-analyses". Gershoff also argued that the line between corporal punishment and abuse is necessarily arbitrary, stating that "the same dimensions that characterize 'normative' corporal punishment can, when taken to extremes, make hitting a child look much more like abuse than punishment...Unfortunately, child protective services workers and judges in family courts across the country must make such distinctions on a daily basis". She remarked that "parents who are fearful of being reported to child protection authorities may underreport their use of harsh techniques rather than risk identification as an abusive parent...Research is needed to address the question of whether mandated reporting [of suspected abuse] affects parents' willingness to report corporal punishment".

Baumrind and colleagues noted that the studies included in Gershoff's review could not answer the question of direction of effect, asserting that "it is arbitrary to treat corporal punishment as the independent variable and child aggression as the dependent variable...without first establishing temporal order". In reply, Gershoff emphasized that "The main rationale parents have for using corporal punishment is that it will have an effect on their children...it is facile to suggest that parents are powerless to resist using corporal punishment in the face of their children's noxious behaviors".

Baumrind and colleagues proposed that parents who are easily frustrated or inclined toward controlling behavior "should not spank", but that the results of Gershoff's review did not support a "blanket injunction" against spanking. Gershoff, however, called Baumrind et al.'s solution "both unrealistic and unimplementable as public policy", insofar as it would likely require potentially abusive parents to police themselves. Gershoff argued that given the number of apparent adverse effects, including the possible link to actual child abuse, "the burden of proof should be high" in favor of corporal punishment. She asserted that "unless and until researchers, clinicians, and parents can definitively demonstrate the presence of [beneficial] effects of corporal punishment [and] not just the absence of negative effects, we as psychologists cannot responsibly recommend its use".

Reasons for use
Gray: directive parenting styles

Purpose of corporal punishment
Citing:

Straus MA (1996) "Spanking and the making of a violent society". Pediatrics 98:837–842.

Graziano AM, Hamblen JL, Plante WA (1996). "Subabusive violence in child rearing in middle-class American families". Pediatrics 98:845–848.

Legal status
Countries pledged to eliminate corporal punishment: Europe, South America...

Popular opinion
Charles Blow, New York Times

Time Magazine

Churches' network for non-violence

History (cleanup)
In 1941, Jorge Luis Borges created "The Garden of Forking Paths", a short story that is often considered an inspiration for the concept of hypertext...

Apostasy
The IHEU report for 2014 can be found at freethoughtreport.com. Laws Criminalizing Apostasy, Library of Congress Show Who's Boss: A death sentence issued by a Sudanese court has stirred up controversy, The Economist, 7 June 2014 Mauritania Issues First Apostasy Death Sentence, Yahoo News, 25 December 2014

Blasphemy
What are Pakistan's blasphemy laws?, BBC News, November 2014

"Bad-mouthing: Pakistan’s blasphemy laws legitimise intolerance", The Economist, 29 November 2014