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1. Introduction

Amaranthus caudatus (also known as Amaranthus edulis[3], Amaranthus mantegazzianus [3]) is a species of annual flowering plant. It goes by common names such as love-lies-bleeding,[12] pendant amaranth, tassel flower,[12] velvet flower,[12] foxtail amaranth,[12] and quilete.

To the Quechua people of South America, A. caudatus is referred to as kiwicha [3], quihuicha [3], inca jataco; ataco [3], ataku [3], sankurachi [3], jaguarcha (Ecuador) [3], millmi [3], or coimi [3]. While to the Aymara people, who are native to the Andes and Altiplano regions of South America, A. caudatus is known as qamasa [3]. Many parts of the plant, including the leaves and seeds, are edible, and are frequently used as a source of food in India as well as in South America, where it is the most important Andean species of Amaranthus. This species, as with many other amaranths, is originally from the American tropics. The exact origin is unknown, as A. caudatus is believed to be a wild Amaranthus hybridus aggregate. In indigenous agriculture, A. cruentus is the Central American counterpart to South American A. caudatus.

1.1. Description

A. caudatus is most recognizable for its striking flowering panicles that can reach up to 90cm long. The colour of these highly dense flowering panicles ranges can be black, red and more commonly white. The red varieties of A. caudatus are due to a high content of betacyanins. Each panicle is self-pollinating and the fruits each contain a single small seed, no larger than 1 mm in diameter. Like quinoa, each seed has a shiny coat and the embryo is curved around the small endosperm. The panicles grow from lateral buds and from the main stem. [3]

A. caudatus is an annual, broad-leaved dicotyledon with a central stem that grows from a taproot system. Depending on the variety, A. caudatus can reach up to 2.5m tall. Leaves and side branches grow outward from the central stem and may start as low as the base of the plant. [3]

1.2. Etymology

During the Victorian era, specific flowers had different meanings, and thus the common name “love-lies-bleeding” stood for hopeless love or hopelessness in the Victorian language of flowers[13].

1.3. History

Kiwicha is originally from Central and South America and was used as a staple grain by the Inca, Maya and Aztec civilizations [3]. Because of its high nutritional value it was culturally considered as a beneficial food for children and elderly [6]. Kiwicha was very important for Aztec people. They believed that amaranth had power to give strength to people that eat it. This food was not only used for royalty diet but also in religious rituals. Amaranth was mixed with honey and human blood and eaten during ceremonies, including human sacrifices [3,8]. For these reasons, around 1500s when the conquistador came, they prohibited the use of amaranth. Amaranth was almost completely banned from these regions. Around 1800s the pseudocereal slowly started to be cultivated again. Because of its late reuse, due to its history, amaranth cultivation is still very localized in America.

1.4. Natural Distribution

Kiwicha is an indigenous crop from the high Peruvian Andes that has been cultivated for thousands of years by many cultures including the Incas [3]. It is the only Amaranth species that can grow at altitudes greater than 2,500 meters above the sea level [4].

Despite the fact that kiwicha had been a well-adapted staple in the Andean region for millennia and had offered substantial nutritional advantages to the native people, when the Spanish came in the 1500s, they replaced kiwicha cultivations with wheat and barley. However, because of its great nutritional content, Kiwicha is regaining popularity and returning to compete with modern crops. Although Kiwicha is seldom recognized outside of the Andes, significant plantings have been observed in Mexico, China, Nepal, India and Kenya [4].

'''2 Cultivation techniques

2.1. Genetics'''

All species of amaranth have a diploid chromosome set but a different number of chromosomes. In A. caudatus the number is 2n = 32 [1].

2.2. Cultivation

In most parts of its habitat, A. caudatus can easily grow between 1 and 2.5 meters and grows best in full sun within 4-6 months. However, in some highland regions they can take up to 10 months. It is a summer annual C4 plant. A. caudatus grows from Ecuador to northern Argentina mostly in mild areas or in the valleys of the Andes. Despite its geographical adaptability, it is a short-day plant and needs adequate moisture. Cultivation can occur up to 3100 m. a.s.l. and once established it is drought tolerant and can handle both wet and dry conditions. If the cultivation is in subtropical climates, it can be harvested up to two times. Loam and loam-sandy soils with lots of organic matter and good drainage are best. Clay soils are not recommended for A. caudatus. In addition, the pH must be between 6-7, although up to 8.5 the plant can still grow [1]–[3].

The crop is planted by transfer, with the help of seedlings in fields or by direct drilling at the beginning of the rainy season. They are cut at a height of 10 to 55 cm and the cultivation practices are similar to those of corn: ear emergence, two-stage fertilization and weed control. In the Andes of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador and Argentina, the plant is grown in the traditional way on non-irrigated land without fertilizers. The seeds are very small, so soil preparation is important, such as breaking up of clods and shaking up. It is recommended to plought the soil, harrow and make furrows either in the traditional way with a yoke or by machin [1].

Weed control takes place manually with pricking out. In the absence of rain, irrigation is necessary every 30 days and especially in flowering and grain filling stages, and harvesting is done before full maturity of the plant. In this process, the plants are cut 50 cm above the ground. They are collected in furrows until they dry and then hit with sticks. In this process, they are placed on laid on clothing or tamped floors for threshing and sieved so that the seeds can be separated from the dead leaves. Improvement of cultivation consists in proper soil preparation and direct sowing of selected seeds at a density of 4 to 6 kg/ha in 80 cm wide furrows, using fertilizers according to the nutrient content of the soil. The yield varies between 2000 and 5000 kg/ha in Peru and 900 to 4000 kg/ha in Ecuador [1].

2.3. Pests and diseases

The most common diseases affecting the seeds are Pythium spp. and Fusarium spp. Fungal diseases such as Sclerotinia spp. and Alternaria spp. cause stem and root rot. The most common pest is Diabrotica spp, also known as Loritos, which can damage the plant during emergence. Other pests include Agrotis spp. and Eupicata spp. Blister beetles (Epicauta adspersa) and red weed caterpillar (Loxostege bifidalis) were also found in some countries. They caused severe defoliation of the upper leaves. These pests are controlled by the application of 1.5% diatomaceous earth [1].

'''3 Food

3.1. Nutrition'''

The flavourful and gluten free Kiwicha is very high in protein and essential amino acids, such as lysine, which are typically deficient in plant protein. In terms of nutritional content, Kiwicha protein is virtually similar to milk protein (casein), and it complements the nutritional quality of foods derived from flours of corn, rice, or wheat [4]. As a result, Kiwicha is particularly beneficial for infants, children, and pregnant and lactating women, but also vegetarians and vegans. Kiwicha is high in dietary fiber and minerals such as iron, magnesium and manganese. Its frequent consumption could help to reduce hypertension and cholesterol. Kiwicha has also been found to have anthelmintic, antinociceptive, antipyretic, anticancer, antiallergenic, antidiabetic, immune system stimulation, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, and antibacterial properties [5].

3.2. Culinary use and dishes

There are several uses of kiwicha. When ground it can be used as flour but also as breading for sweets and main dishes when crushed. Seeds can be popped as popcorn on an pan and, like oats, can be eaten with milk as cereals [3,9,10]. In Mexico amaranth is used on sweets with honey and the dish is called « alegria » (meaning « happiness » in Spanish), India has a similar dish called « ladoos » [3]. Nowadays, and because of ist nutritional values, Nyonje et al. explored the substitution of some vegetables by amaranth leaves in kenyan traditional dishes and investigated if the vitamins and minerals remain when boiled for instance [7].

'''4 Other Uses

4.1. Animal Feed'''

After the A. caudatus grains have been removed, the remaining plant material (stover) can be used for fodder. During dry seasons when forage is limited, fodder from A. caudatus stover would be an essential source of animal feed for Andean farmers to maintain their livestock [3].

Additionally, A. caudatus can be suitable to be used as a high-protein forage crop in the tropics.

4.2. Natural dye

In Peru, simple methods have been developed to extract Betalain from red varieties of Kiwicha to be used as non-toxic red food colouring. For some applications, this natural dye may be used to replace the use of synthetic dyes. However natural dyes tend to have a lower colour fastness and therefore may not function well as a direct substitution.

[1]	A. Di Fabio and G. Parraga, “Origin, Production and Utilization of Pseudocereals,” Pseudocereals Chem. Technol., pp. 1–27, 2016, doi: 10.1002/9781118938256.ch1.

[2]	S. Montserrat-de la Paz, A. Martinez‐lopez, A. Villanueva‐lazo, J. Pedroche, F. Millan, and M. C. Millan‐linares, “Identification and characterization of novel antioxidant protein hydrolysates from kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus l.),” Antioxidants, vol. 10, no. 5, 2021, doi: 10.3390/antiox10050645.

[3]	National Research Council. 1989. Lost Crops of the Incas: Little-Known Plants of the Andes with Promise for Worldwide Cultivation. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.

[4]	Espitia, E., Mapes, C., Escobedo, D., De la Olán, M., Rivas, P., Martínez G., Cortés L., & Hernández, J. M. (2010). Conservación y uso de los recursos genéticos de Amaranto en México. INIFAP, Centro de Investigación Regional Centro, Celaya

[5]	A. Martinez-Lopez, M.C. Millan-Linares, N.M. Rodriguez-Martin, F. Millan, S. Montserrat-de la Paz, ”Nutraceutical value of kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus L.)”, Journal of Functional Foods, 65 (2020), p. 103735, 10.1016, doi:/j.jff.2019.103735

[6]	CASELATO‐SOUSA, Valéria Maria et AMAYA‐FARFÁN, Jaime. State of knowledge on amaranth grain: a comprehensive review. Journal of Food Science, 2012, vol. 77, no 4, p. R93-R104.

[7]	Nyonje, W. A., Yang, R. Y., Wu, W. J., Makokha, A. O., Owino, W. O., & Abukutsa-Onyango, M. O. (2021). Enhancing the Nutritional Quality of Vegetable Amaranth through Specific Food Preparation Methods. Journal of Food Research, 10(4), 42-55.

[8]	Tucker, J. B. (1986). Amaranth: the once and future crop. Bioscience, 36(1), 9-13.

[9]	Marx, J. L. (1977). Amaranth: A Comeback for the Food of the Aztecs?. Science,198(4312), 40-40.

[10]	https://www.limaeasy.com/peruvian-food-guide/grain-coffee-crop-beans-and-nuts/kiwicha#:~:text=The%20grain%20is%20also%20ground,of%20Peru's%20%22super%20grains%22.

[11]"The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species". Retrieved February 7, 2014.

[12]"Amaranthus caudatus". Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Agricultural Research Service (ARS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Retrieved 31 July 2014.

[13]"Love Lies Bleeding: A Memorable Name for a Striking Plant". davesgarden.com. Retrieved 2016-11-26.