User:PersusjCP/sandbox/Upper Skagit Indian Tribe

The Upper Skagit Indian Tribe is a federally recognized Native American tribe located in the state of Washington. The tribe is the successor-in-interest to at least eleven historic tribes (or bands) which signed the Treaty of Point Elliot in 1855.

The tribe lives mostly along the Skagit River, with former villages ranging from as far downstream as present-day Mount Vernon, Washington, to as far north as Newhalem.

The Upper Skagit Indian Tribe is made up of the descendants of several peoples and were not historically one unified group prior to colonization. Culturally, the Upper Skagit are related to other Lushootseed-speaking peoples, as well as the many Coast Salish cultures. They traditionally speak Lushootseed, which is spoken by many peoples living along coastline and the rivers emptying into Puget Sound. It is mostly used today for ceremonial reasons, however there has been a growing movement to revitalize the language since the late 20th century.

Name
The name "Skagit" is an anglicization of the Lushootseed word, which refers to the Skagit people of Whidbey Island, whose territory encompassed the land around Penn Cove. "Upper Skagit" in particular refers to the peoples whose villages were located along the Skagit River and its tributaries, contrasting with the "Lower Skagit" of Whidbey island. Early settlers applied the name to both the Skagit proper, as well as those living along the Skagit River, creating the distinction between the "Upper" and "Lower" Skagits. In historic times, the peoples of the Skagit river would have used the term, to refer to themselves as a unit.

The Lushootseed word is composed of the nominalizing prefix, and the root.

Predecessor bands of the Upper Skagit Indian Tribe
The modern institution known as the Upper Skagit Indian Tribe is the political successor to all of the groups who were living along the Skagit River, past the confluence of the forks, at the time of the Treaty of Point Elliot in 1855. These groups are often numbered at eleven, covering much of the Skagit River drainage system. While the various Skagit River peoples were sovereign from each other, they were all closely allied in culture, language, and kinship.

Due to then-Territorial Governor Isaac Stevens' policy of consolidating as many peoples into one group as possible, some groups did not sign the treaty as independent groups, but instead were counted as part of the Skagit and other neighboring tribes, and thus were not represented by the treaty in their own right. The Nuwaha people, a group that was closely allied to the Skagit river peoples, is succeeded by both the Upper Skagit Indian Tribe as well as the Samish Indian Nation. The Sauk-Suiattle, whose villages were along the Sauk and Suiattle rivers, have sometimes been considered by anthropologists to be a group of the Upper Skagit because of their historical affiliation with the groups living on the Skagit River. Today, the Sauk-Suiattle have their own federally-recognized tribe, the Sauk-Suiattle Indian Tribe.

Oral tradition and prehistory
According to Upper Skagit oral tradition, it was the Changer, known in Lushootseed as dukʷibəɬ, who changed the world into how it is today. In the Myth Age, the period before human settlement when many traditional stories take place, animals took on the appearance of their human-shaped spirits, and were as intelligent as humans. The Changer, moving across the world from east to west, reduced their size and intelligence to normal, so that humans could inhabit the world properly. As he moved across the world, he gave each group of people their language, but he still had many languages remaining when he reached the western coast. So, he decided to spread the many languages he had left amongst the people of the coast, creating the linguistic diversity that exists today.

The earliest humans in the Puget Sound region likely arrived roughly 12,000 years ago. Tools belonging to the old Cordilleran culture have been found, pointing to a period where humans relied primarily on big game hunting for surivial. This period was possibly followed by the development of the marine culture in the Early Maritime period, which has been well-studied in the Fraser Valley region. Following this was the Intermediate period, roughly from 700 CE-1250 CE. By this time, local peoples had begun utilizing both marine and inland resources. The Recent period, roughly from 1250 CE-1750 CE, was categorized by the development (and continued use) of fortifications, new projectile and spear points, and new styles of fish hooks. This period led into the Historic period of the 18th century to present.

Prior to the Historic period, the predecessor bands of the Upper Skagit Tribe built permanent settlements up and down the Skagit River, and built summer camps in the forests and on the mountains near their homes. Roots and plants such as potatoes were cultivated in prairies, and clams were dug across the coast at places like Padilla Bay.

Early colonial period
The first Europeans to record their encounter the with the predecessors of the Upper Skagit were the crew of José María Narváez and the Santa Saturnina around 1791. When they arrived in what they called "Seno de Padilla" (Padilla Bay), they could see many people who were gathering shellfish, likely from the nearby Nuwaha village of, which was located on the bay. Nearby, on Boundary Bay, they had met other peoples who they were suprised to find large amounts of European trade goods and even horses in their possession, with locals even saying that they had seen ships even larger pass by before, implying that there had been previous contact between the Indigenous peoples of the region and Europeans, albeit unrecorded.

Padilla Bay was again visited by Europeans in June of 1792, by George Vancouver. Once again they watched the people working in the bay, this time fishing from their canoes. There were several other periodic visits from Europeans into the region, although they never came inland enough to come into contact with the peoples of the Skagit River. Despite this, there were likely Upper Skagit who would have seen the European ships as they travelled outside their territory.

After the establishment of forts Langley and Victoria in modern-day British Columbia, it was common for the Upper Skagit peoples to visit the forts to trade. It became tradition to visit one of the forts (usually Victoria) at least once during one's life.

Sometime before 1855, a man named gained a large religious following among the Upper Skagit. was born at the Snohomish village of to a Nespelem man, also called, who had moved west of the Cascade mountains. Although (the younger) lived on the western side of the mountains, he would often visit his family on the eastern side. There, he became acquainted with a Frenchman named Eugene Casimir Chirouse, who would later become a famous Catholic missionary in the Puget Sound region. When Chirouse arrived in Puget Sound, offered to translate, knowing both the Okanagan language (which Chirouse had learned) as well as the local language of Lushootseed. After the death of his first wife, he remarried into a highly prestigious Nuwaha family under the famous warrior-leader Petius, which greatly increased his prestige. He became a famous orator and missionary, introducing his own brand of religion to the Upper Skagit, which was a mixture of the Prophet Dance of the plateau, Catholicism, and the local religion. established himself as the leader of this religion, deviating significantly from the traditionally democratic social order at the time, holding widely-attended church sessions during the summer at his large wooden house near what is today Rockport. Eventually, would establish himself as the sole "chief" of the Upper Skagit.

In 1855, Isaac Stevens, the first Territorial Governor of Washington, selected representatives from many tribes in the Puget Sound area to sign the Treaty of Point Elliott. Only two Upper Skagit tribes sent representatives: the Nookachamps and the Mesekwigwils. The Nookachamps were represented by Chlahben, and the Mesekwigwils were represented by Sdzekdunum. Other promient leaders, such as, attended the treaty convention, but did not sign it. To this day, all members of the Upper Skagit Indian Tribe are descended from or otherwise related to those that signed the treaty. The Upper Skagit continued their living traditionally, hunting and fishing along the banks of the Skagit and the surrounding forests. The Upper Skagit also expanded their permanent settlements, clearing areas of land around their homes in order to plant potatoes as well as new crops such as corn, and to raise livestock such as chickens. This way, they could trade for more at the forts.

The first wagon trail along the Skagit River was created by settlers in 1852, coming from the mountains of British Columbia. Then, in 1858, prospectors discovered gold upriver at Ruby Creek. Fearing further American settlement, the Upper Skagit living around present-day Mount Vernon utilized a two-mile logjam from the convergence of the forks to discourage White settlement. Settlers had established small towns downriver of the logjam, but it discouraged further upriver settlement for several decades. The first White settler to claim land past the logjam was William Hamilton, founding Hamilton. Despite this, the logjam continued to dissuade settlers. Eventually, a store was built past the logjam at Mount Vernon in 1876. This attracted settlers from the close settlements of Skagit City, Conway, and La Conner. The logjam was then destroyed with dynamite in 1878, allowing the Skagit River to slowly populate with settlers.

Land disputes and reservation era
In 1886, a White man murdered an Upper Skagit person in Sauk-Suiattle territory. When he was apprehended by White authorities, the Upper Skagit demanded to try the settler for murder, as was their right according to the treaty. However, the settlers refused, and the man was tried at Lyman. This greatly angered the Indigenous population of the Skagit and Sauk rivers, but they did nothing. Soon, another surveyor came to the area, and the Upper Skagit, knowing this would lead to further settlement of their lands, demanded he leave their territory. After some deliberation, he eventually acquiesced, returning downriver. The Upper Skagit then decided to protest against further settlement, gathering everyone together and going downriver to meet the Americans. They appeared with at least 100 large canoes full of people, demanding that they leave Upper Skagit land and return downriver. The settlers complied, and some stayed behind, meeting at Birdsview to hold counsel with the Upper Skagit. Five men were selected from the Upper Skagit to meet with the Americans, where they formally asked for the settlers to leave. No agreement was reached, and the rest of the settlers left for La Conner. Bernard von Pressentin, the man whose house was used for counsel at Birdsview, sent a telegram to the government to ask for aid against the Upper Skagit. The government sent a company of soldiers led by one Colonel Simmons. The company chased the Upper Skagit back to modern-day Concrete, where the Colonel met with the Upper Skagit. Once again, they protested the encroachment of settlers on their land, but Colonel Simmons said that if the Upper Skagit did anything to harm the settlers, there would be retribution from the army. The Upper Skagit then appealed to Roger S. Green, the territorial judge, but he likewise said there was nothing they could do. The U.S. Government attempted to make small allotments of land to the Upper Skagit in 1892, but these were rejected by the tribe, saying they already owned the land and accepting small allotments would be meaningless. Then, in 1897, the Washington National Forest (known today as the Mount Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest) was established. Because their land was now federally protected, Forest Rangers came and destroyed Upper Skagit fishing weirs and tried to prevent the Upper Skagit from cutting wood. At this point, many members of the Upper Skagit appealed to the government for allotments of land in the National Forest, all of them being denied. Eventually, in 1907 and 1909, several allotments were granted to the Upper Skagit on the Suiattle River, an extremely isolated area, even into the late 1900s.

The Upper Skagit Indian Tribe was granted federal recognition on December 4, 1974. A reservation of approximately 100 acres was established on September 10, 1981, with another seven acres being acquired in 1997.

Government
Historically, the society of the Upper Skagit peoples was based on extensive kinship ties. The highest level of permanent authority was never above the family unit, and as such, "chiefs" (as they are described in early literature) were non-existent at the time of colonization. During the colonial period, Upper Skagit society began to shift towards centralization, and certain figures began to appear whose influence and authority reached outside of their family and across society. Several figures emerged during this period, including. himself was followed by his son, John Campbell. John Campbell's sister, Lahabulitsa, succeeded him. When she died, she was succeeded by John Campbell's son, Joseph Campbell. When Joseph Campbell died, his eldest son, John Campbell became chief. By 1974, the Chief of the Upper Skagit was Peter Campbell, his eldest brother and the second son of Joseph Campbell.

Today, the Upper Skagit Indian Tribe is governed by the Upper Skagit Tribal Council, an elected body which carries out the governmental responsibilities of the tribe.

Upper Skagit Indian Reservation
The Upper Skagit Indian Reservation was established on September 10, 1981. It consists of three separate small parcels of land in western Skagit County. The largest section, located northeast of Sedro Woolley, is at 48.54194°N, -122.1875°W, while the smaller western sections are at 48.55917°N, -122.345°W, and at 48.56861°N, -122.34528°W, about midway between Seattle and Vancouver, BC on Interstate Highway 5. The total land area is approximately 107 acres (0.404686 km²). Its resident population was 238 persons as of the 2000 census. As of the 2020 census, the population was 266 persons.

The Tribe owns several successful businesses including The Skagit Casino Resort with the Encore, The Market Buffet and Express Eats restaurants, The Skagit Ridge Hotel, Bow Hill Gas and Food Mart, and the Highway 20 Hometown Pharmacy.

Language
The Upper Skagit peoples speak Northern Lushootseed, a Central Coast Salish language spoken by a variety of Indigenous peoples across Puget Sound. The dialect spoken by the Upper Skagit is called Skagit, which consists of three mutually-intelligible sub-dialects: Lower Skagit, Upper Skagit, and Sauk.

Use of Lushootseed has declined since the beginning of the colonial period, and the last fluent native speaker of Lushootseed, Vi Hilbert, an Upper Skagit citizen, died in 2008. Today, the language is primarily spoken in ceremonial contexts. Despite this, there are efforts across Puget Sound to revitalize the language. Vi Hilbert dedicated much of her life to recording and revitalizing the language.