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Sang Sinxay (ສັງສີນໄຂ) (also known as Sinxay or Sinsai), is a Lao epic poem written by Pang Kham.(cite MSF Sang sinxay entry) It tells the story of the hero Sinxay who goes on a quest to rescue his aunt who was abducted by the demon Nyak Koumphan. The poem is believed to have been written sometime between the mid-16th and the end of the 17th century in the Lao kingdom of Lan Xang.(cite MSF entry). Sang Sinxay is considered one of the great and best-known poems of Lao literature,(cite Chalong) and its scenes are depicted in numerous temples throughout Laos and the Isan region.

Historical and literary context
Sang Sinxay was written between the reigns of Xetthathirat and Surinyavongsa, thus between the mid-16th and the end of the 17th century.(cite entry – MSF Dictionary) This period was considered to be the second golden age of cultural development in Lan Xang, ending in 1695 with the death of King Suriyavongsa. In this period the arts flourished in Vientiane, the Lao capital.(cite The Lao Kingdom of Lan Xang Rise and Decline by Martin Stuart-Fox) The decline of the Lan Xang kingdom helped Lao culture prosper, and many of the great works of Lao Literature were composed during the reign of Surinyavongsa. (cite Chalong Soontravanich in his essay Sila Viravong’s Phongsawadan Lao: A Reappraisal )

Martin Stuart-Fox, in the Historical Dictionary of Laos, states that epic poems appeared in Lao literature in the late 16th century or in the beginning of the 17th century, and that Sang Sinxay is the best known epic poem composed in this period. The name of the authors of these epic poems are unknown, except for Pang Kham, author of Sang Sinxay. Many of these epic poems were written in the style of a jataka tale with Sinxay, the hero of the poem, considered a Bodhisatta (in Pali), or Boddhisatva (in Sanskrit).

Palm leaf manuscripts and publishing history
Up to the early 20th century, most works of literature in Laos were preserved through continuous copying in the form of palm-leaf manuscripts, traditionally stored in wooden caskets and kept in the libraries of Buddhist monasteries. The Digital Library of Lao Manuscripts hosts 94 digitized palm leaf manuscripts whose title includes the word Sinsai (spelling used by the Digital Library of Lao Manuscripts).(website in citation, no external links in the text).

One of the Sinxay palm leaf manuscripts was discovered in the Thai National Library in Bangkok by Mahasila Viravong, a Buddhist and Pali scholar who worked there. Viravong had fled Laos when, after the end of World War II, the French tried to (find best way to phrase this succinctly….). He transliterated the palm-leaf manuscript into Lao, and after returning to Laos he published the first edition of Sang Sinxay, in 1949. The second edition was published in 1951. In 1953 Mahasila claimed that Sang Sinxay was one of three masterpieces of Lao literature, along with Vetsantrasadok and Thao Hung. He published his final edition of Sang Sinxay in hard cover format in 1969, combining the first and second editions into one volume. The poem was reprinted a total of seven times between 1949 and 1983. In the 1980’s Mahasila began translating Sang Sinxay into modern Lao, hoping that a new prose edition would help future generations understand and enjoy the poem. He died before finishing the translation, which was completed by Outhine Bounyavong, his son-in-law. The new edition, titled Sinxay, was first published in 1991 by Dokked Printing Ltd.

In 2009, to commemorate the 450th Anniversary of the founding of Vientiane, Dokked Printing Ltd. published the first commemorative volume of the original Sang Sinxay, the first publication in the publisher’s "Vientiane Heritage Series". The second commemorative volume was printed in 2011. Both volumes contain explanatory notes and definitions to help the reader understand some of the older Lao words and phrases. In 2005 the Lao government proclaimed Sinxay a national cultural heritage which was recorded under the National Heritage Law.(cite NHL)

Plot Summary
Phanya Kousarath is the king of Muang Pengchan, a powerful kingdom. He and his wife, Nang Chanta, are unable to have children. The king’s sister, Soumountha, is abducted by a demon called Nyak Koumphan, ruler of a far-away kingdom of ogres. Phanya Kousarath, after becoming a Buddhist monk for six months, embarks on a journey to find his sister. An abbot at a temple in Muang Champa tells him that only someone with a lineage to Buddha or Indra would be able to defeat Nyak Koumphan. After being reinstated as king, Phanya Kousarath meets and marries seven sisters he met on the monks’ morning alms. He asks the sisters to pray the gods for pregnancy, in order to give birth to a child with the power to rescue Soumountha. Nang Chanta and Nang Lun pray together to Indra, who hears their prayers and chooses three of his sons to come down to earth and be born from them.

Nang Lun is the first wife to give birth. She gives birth to two twins, Sangthong, who has the body of a conch shell, and Sinxay, who holds a sword, bow and arrows. Sinxay’s name means “he who will triumph by his virtues”. Nang Chanta gives birth to Siho, a boy with the body of a lion and the head of an elephant, while the other six sisters give birth to normal looking sons. Lun and Chanta are banished from the palace along with their sons because of the babies’ strange appearance. They are left in the forest, where Indra sees their hardships and builds a small palace for them. Sinxay, while still a boy, asks his mother to return him his weapons. He demonstrates his power by shooting two arrows. The first lands in the kingdom of the khuts, while the second one lands in the kingdom of the nagas. The kings of both kingdoms leads millions of their followers to Sinxay’s palace, pledging their service to him.

Phanya Kousarath sends the six brothers on a quest to find the power needed to rescue Soumountha. After getting lost in the forest, they are led by Indra to Sinxay’s palace. Through deception, they convince Sinxay to make all the animals in the forest appear at the palace in Muang Pengchan. They use this to convince their father that they have gained the magical powers they were seeking. Thus the king sends them on a quest to rescue his sister. They end up at Sinxay’s palace again, and trick him into believing he is the one chosen by the king for the quest. The six brothers, Sinxay, Sangthong and Siho leave together, but upon meeting a giant snake the six flee in terror while Siho and Sinxay kill the snake.

When they arrive at a river, the six brothers refuse to proceed further. Sinxay leaves Siho to protect them, and sets off to rescue Soumountha along with Sangthong. In his journey, Sinxay meets many obstacles, some of which set on his course by Nyak Koumphan. He also meets a group of kinnari, and falls in love with one of them, Kiengkham. He leaves her after seven days with the promise of returning to marry her. Finally Sinxay and Sangthong reach Nyak Koumphan’s palace, where they meet their aunt Soumountha, only to discover she has fallen in love with Koumphan and does not want to go back to Muang Pengchan. Sinxay shoots an arrow, whose power makes Koumphan fall into a deep sleep. He then forcefully leads Soumountha away from the palace, and hides her into a cave created by Indra. Sinxay and Sangthong go back to Koumphan’s palace, and try to kill him while he sleeps. Every time they slice off their head, though, seven more nyaks appear. Sinxay then shoots an arrow that burns many of the nyaks and makes the remaining ones flee into the forest. After retrieving Soumountha and finding a palace in the forest created for them by Indra, the two brothers are surrounded by millions of nyaks gathered by Koumphan. After two great battles Sinxay manages to kill Koumphan.

Soumountha then asks Sinxay to rescue her daughter, Sidachan, who is now the wife of Nak Valoonarat, king of the nagas and guardian of underworld treasures. When they reach Nak Valoonarat’s palace, Sinxay challenges him to a game of chess. He bets his weapons, while the king bets his kingdom. After three wins, Sinxay proposes to take Sidachan instead of the kingdom, but Nak Valoonarat refuses, prompting a battle against millions of nagas. Sinxay and Sangthong are helped in the battle by the king of the khuts, and they finally prevail, capturing Nak Valoonarat, who now agrees to hand over Sidachan.

Sinxay, Sangthong, Soumountha and Sidachan are rejoined with Siho and the six brothers, still by the river. The six brothers start planning to take credit for the rescue. While bathing at the top of the waterfall, they push Sinxay over the edge, believing he is dead. Soumountha, in despair, leaves her silk scarf, her ornamented hairpin and her hair extension by the river, praying they would be returned to the palace as proof of Sinxay’s survival.

Back in Muang Pengchan, a celebration is held in honor of the six brothers, who would soon be the new kings. Soon, though, Soumountha and Sidachan tell Phanya Kousarath how the events unfolded. He demands for proof, and receives it when a mariner tells him of the three objects he found by the river. The six brothers and their mothers are thrown into jail, and the king embarks on a journey to locate Sinxay. They find him at his palace in the forest, but Sinxay refuses to return to Muang Pengchan to become king. Soumountha convinces Sinxay with a speech, explaining that it is in the best interest of the kingdom. He returns to Muang Pengchang, where he becomes king, marries Kiengkham, and rules virtuously.

Alternate ending
''The first publication of Sang Sinxay ends with Sinxay’s marriage with Kiengkham. This is the most commonly known version in Laos. In Isan an alternate ending is the best known, and it is also represented on murals in temples of the region.''

After Sinxay becomes king, Vedsuvan, the nyak leader, notices he has not heard from Nyak Koumphan in over seven years. He sends two of his nobles down to earth, where they discover that Koumphan has been killed by Sinxay. Vedsuvan descends to earth, and pours sacred water on Koumphan’s bones, bringing him back to life. Koumphan is still angry, and wants to return Soumountha to his kingdom. Becoming a queen fly, he enters the palace in Muang Pengchan, abducting Soumountha and Sinxay. He locks Sinxay in a wooden cage, planning to boil him alive in an iron cauldron.

Sangthong and Siho, upon discovering the abduction, fly to the kingdom of the nyaks with Sinxay’s weapons. Transforming themselves, they manage to sneak their way through the thousands of nyaks gathered around Sinxay’s cage. Siho slips Sinxay’s bow and arrows and sword through the bars, while Sangthong knocks over the iron cauldron, scalding the nearby nyaks with its boiling water. Sinxay frees himself using his sword, and he is challenged to a battle by a furious Koumphan. Indra, from Tavitsima Heaven, sees the confrontation that is about to take place, and intervenes, calming down Koumphan.

Koumphan’s anger dissipates, and he agrees to travel to Muang Pengchan and ask for Soumountha’s hand. She accepts his proposal, and Koumphan builds a saphanthong, a golden bridge connecting the kingdom of nyaks with the humans, as a symbol of alliance. Koumphan and Soumountha get married, and she goes to live with his husband. Sinxay continues being the virtuous king of Muang Pengchan, and the kingdom is now allied to the khuts, the naks and the nyaks.

Style and themes
Sang Sinxay is one of the poetic works which was meant to be read out loud on special occasions such as religious festivals, an art which became known as nangsu, term which to this day is used to describe storytelling in Laos.(cite) It is written in old Lao language and Pali. The poem attempts to instill in the reader the importance of virtues such as gatanyu (gratefulness) and integrity. The alternate ending has been praised by Phong Samaleuk, President of the Lao Buddhist Fellowship Organization, because it shows how the dharma always conquers evil.(cite here)

Legacy
Sang Sinxay is considered among the greatest Lao epic poems,(cite MSF dict. Entry/) and its main character, Sinxay, is well-known in Lao. In 1975 Kasone Pomvihan, first Prime Minister of the newly formed Lao People’s Democratic Republic, exhorted Lao youth to become “Sinxay of the New Era”. (cite here) The phrase was used again in November 2009 at the opening of the Southeast Asian Games in Vientiane, when a young man dressed as Sinxay shot his flaming arrow to light the cauldron, while an announcement said: “Sinxay of the new era lights up the cauldron with the flame of his arrow.”

In 2008 the mayor of Khon Kaen Municipality chose Sinxay as the new symbol of the city. In the following years municipality officials implemented a plan to promote the figure of Sinxay through teacher-developed curriculum taught in schools, a sports day, specialized programs held throughout the year and lampposts featuring Sinxay, Siho and Sangthong. In February 2010, during the celebration for the 450th anniversary of Vientiane, a special day was indicted to commemorate Sinxay, with performances by the Children’s Education Development Center, displays of illustrations by students from local schools and various lectures about the hero.

Sang Sinxay in the arts
At the time Sang Sinxay was written the Lao kingdom of Lan Xang also encompassed the northeastern region of Thailand commonly referred to as Isan. In the late 19th century, when the French declared Laos a protectorate of France, the northeast region was ceded to Siam. The Thai people living in this region, who refer to themselves as Khon Isan, still closely associate themselves with Lao culture. Sang Sinxay is, to this day, an important shared cultural heritage of the Lao people on both sides of the Mekong River, thus art depicting scenes from the books can be found in both Isan and Laos.

In Laos
Although Sang Sinxay was originally meant to be read out loud or sang, this oral tradition has declined, and the poem is now rarely chanted in temples. One exception is the Lan Xang Heritage Group’s poem recital project, founded by Daravong Kanlagna, grandson of Mahasila Viravong. The group promoted the recital and the performance of Sang Sinxay by primary and secondary school students. Notably, Sang Sinxay was performed in Tokyo, during the Poetry Reading and Folk Singing for Lao Children Project.

Scenes from the poem are represented on murals, reliefs and statues at various Buddhist temples throughout the country. In Vientiane scenes from Sang Sinxay are carved on the front doors and the right side window panels of the temple of Wat Haysoke. The temple of Wat Sisangvone, in the Lao capital, presents at the front entrance a relief depicting Sinxay and Nyak Koumphan, and at the back entrance two reliefs of Nyak Koumphan holding Soumountha.

A number of temples in the northeastern province of Huaphan host murals of Sinxay and Nyak Koumphan, often depicted on opposite sides of the entrance to the sim, and portraying Sinxay shooting his arrows at Nyak Koumphan. In Sam Neua a recently-constructed temple, Wat Ong Teu, features gilded carvings designed by renowned Vientiane artist Bounseng. The carvings depict scenes from Sang Sinxay on each of the three sets of doors at the front of the sim.

In Isan
In the Isan region three temples host murals featuring scenes from Sang Sinxay. Wat Chaisi, proclaimed Ancient Monument by the King (cite royal gazette), has the most extensive murals, covering all four sides of the outer and inner walls of the sim. The painting of the murals was everseen by Luang Po On Sa, a monk who wanted to motivate people who were too busy to study the dharma to be virtuous like Sinxay. (cite hup taem) The murals attempt to depict the complete story, but are not arranged sequentially.

Wat Sanuanwari hosts fewer murals, although they are often used to illustrate the story in books and other media. One of the murals depicts Sinxay, Sangthong and Siho fighting the giant snake. While Wat Chaisi and Wat Sanuanwari are located near Khon Kaen, the regional center of Isan, Wat Photaram is situated further away, in Maha Sarakham. In this temple scenes from Sang Sinxay on a single outside wall, covering it entirely. The scenes depicted are different from those found in other temples, including one scene portraying the battle between the 'nagas led by Nak Valoonarat and Sinxay, helped by the khuts.

In Isan Sang Sinxay is one of the most commonly performed stories, along with the Ramakian, within the shadow puppet theatre tradition called Nang Pramo Thai. The poem is performed at weddings, funerals, and Buddhist merit-making ceremonies.

Translations
Sang Sinxay was first translated into modern Lao by Mahasila Viravong during the 80’s. He died before finishing the translation, which was completed by his son-in-law, Outhine Bounyavong, and published in 1991. A translation into Thai by Pricha Phinthong was published in 1981. (any more info?)

The poem was first translated into French by Nhouy Abhay and Pierre Somchinne Nginn in 1965, under the title Sinsay: chef-d’ouevre de la littérature lao. Another translation into French by Dominique Menguy, based on the 1991 modern Lao version, was published in two volumes in 2003 and 2004 under the name Sinxay: L’épopée de Pangkham.

The authors of Sinsay: chef-d’ouevre de la littérature lao used their translation as the basis for an English version, titled The Sinsay of Pangkham and published in 1965. An abridged version was included in 1981 in Treasures of Lao Literature by Samsanouk Mixai.