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Byzantine Empire Portal

The theory of ‘Hellenization’  or Hellenisation of the Byzantine Empire refers to the spread and/or intensification of ancient Greek culture, religion and/or language — generally over foreign cultures subject to Greek influence or occupation. This includes the ethnic and cultural homogenisation which took place, to an intensifying degree, throughout the life of the Byzantine Empire (330-1443 CE) (Zacharia 2008, p. 232.). As opposed to the noun ‘Hellenic’, referring simply to what is ‘Greek’, Hellenization derives from the verb Hellazein, referring to the adoption (as opposed to mere existence) of Greek identity, culture and language — “to speak Greek or identify with the Greeks”. Although the Hellenistic period following the campaigns of Alexander the Great in the fourth century is widely associated with the term, the academic historiographical consensus acknowledges its central role in the formulation and transformation of the Byzantine Empire throughout the over one thousand years of its existence.

Background
Following the division of the Empire by the Emperor Diocletian in 265CE, the Emperor Constantine the Great (324 CE to 337 CE) conquered rivals to become Emperor of both Eastern and Western halves of the empire, moving its capital to the founded city of Constantinople in Asia Minor in 330 CE (Mango 2008). Making significant changes to the Roman Empire, Constantine legalized Christianity and later converted himself — subsequently leading to a distinct Christian culture which characterised the Byzantine Empire following the demise of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE.

Byzantines continued to identify as Roman, with the pronoun ‘Byzantine’ not used ab initio — but is an anachronism which developed in later times derived from the term ‘Byzantium’, which is Greek for Constantinople, the empire’s capital. Despite these Roman Imperial roots, the geographically and largely culturally Hellenic Byzantine Empire witnessed multiple periods of Hellenization and departure from its Latin associations from its founding in 330 CE to its fall in 1443.

Following periods of instability and division between East and West the Roman Senate sent the regalia of the Western Empire to then Easter Emperor Zeno in 476, acknowledging Constantinople as the sole seat of the Roman Empire and Roman Emperor. What followed was a gradually intensifying process of political, cultural and eventually linguistic Hellenization. Amongst other reforms, this notably led to introducing Greek as the Byzantine Empire's official language in 610 CE under the Emperor Heraclius’— ruling from 610 to 641 CE..

Hellenism and Christianity
The impact of Christianity following its legitimisation as the official state religion of Rome under Constantine in the Fourth Century CE contributed key impacts for the empire and its Hellenistic character. This section will explain the varying clashes between the two ideals — Hellenism and Christianity — which were often deemed ‘incompatible’, whilst also detailing the reasons and varying historical theories for the large extent of Hellenization which took place in spite Christianity’s unprecedented dominance in the Empire, and greater Western world.

As Byzantinist Dvornik notes, the Hellensitic theory of Divine Kinship was reconciled with the Byzantine concept of ‘a single Universal Rule who “imitated” and personified the Divine Ruler in Heaven. In so doing, a fusion of Hellenistic doctrines occurred as to justify the incorporation of Hellenistic and often pagan-associated themes into the heavily Christian society. Such elements included the classical philosophers Plato, Philo (whom provided the required element of the ruler’s priestly nature) and the Sotics. Lactanitus and Clement of Alexandria also served as key contributors to the theory, that was solidified and instituted by Byzantine Eusebius of Caes in a finalistic and concluding doctrine.

The widespread attempts to reconcile Hellenistic cultural outlets with Christianity were however often questioned and repelled in an outwardly devoutly Christian-dominated culture. The case of Byzantine monk and Hellenistic revivalist Michael Psellos raised serious questions concerning his religious beliefs and the suggestion of their incompatibility with his reverence for Hellenistic cultural egresses. For example, according to Byzantinist Anthony Kaldellis, "In 1054 he [Psellos] was accused by the future Patriarch John Xiphilinos, of forsaking Christ to follow Plato."

- Assimilation of classical motifs into Christian artwork:

Philosophy, art and culture during the Byzantine Renaissance
The Byzantine Renaissance, also known as the Macedonian Renaissance, marked a philosophic, artistic and literary resurgence of Hellenistic classical culture, occurring between the years 867 to 1056 CE. This central cultural aspect of Hellenization in Byzantium spanned from artistic and architectural styles and mediums appropriated by the Byzantines from Hellenic antiquity, to the poetic, theatrical and historiographical modes of writing and expression associated with ancient Greek literature, idolism and philosophy (Kaldellis 2009, p. 114).

Psellos predilection for Plato and other pagan (often Neoplatonic) philosophers.

-       Teacher of Emperors

a.    Neoplatonism

b.    Art and literature (The Komnene’s, Crusade Historiography)

Hellenizing Impacts of Islamic Expansion
When in 395 AD the Roman Empire split into its Western and Eastern empires, Latin saw continued use in the Byzantine Empire to be used as the official language, the Byzantine Empire from its foundation preserving the many Roman systems of law and governance.

Byzantium’s Hellenic cultural and geographical reality is reflected in that the Greek language was already widely spoken among the Eastern Mediterranean nations as the main trade language. However, in a continuation of the image of Roman Imperium and administration, Latin was the 'official' language of the empire until reign of Heraclius (reigned 610-641), even though he himself is widely believed to have come from a Latin-speaking background. The Byzantines retained some knowledge and use of Latin for several hundred years after, however this was under informal terms and was, by this time, essentially considered a 'foreign language'. Remnants of Latin remained within the technical vocabulary (particularly in the military and the law).

Change of Imperial Administrative Language from Latin to Greek
The emergence of the Muslim Arabs of Arabia in the 640s was followed by the conquest of large swathes of the Byzantine Empire in its Southern and Latin-speaking provinces, initially including those of Syria and Egypt to the Arab Caliphate. The rapid territorial expansion of the Arab Muslims since their initial emergence from Arabia in the 630s CE was under the Rashidun and Umayyad caliphs, and continued into the 11th Century. The following decades were marked by continued aggrandizements which claimed parts of Asia Minor, Armenia and the conquering of the Byzantine Exarchate of Africa (Kadellis 2008). In the Western territories, such as the Latin speaking Balkans, barbarian invasions marked the further decline of the Byzantine Latin-speaking regions. The rapidly declining Latin territories in the face of Islamic expansion and growing schismatic relationship between the Latin Roman West and Greek-speaking Byzantine East would inevitably lead to a renewed embracement and identification with Hellenistic culture and language.

Relatedly, at the height of beforementioned Islamic acquisitions, the widening, schismatic relationship  between the Latin West and Byzantine East East was marked by unprecedented anti-Latin sentiment in the 11th and 12th Centuries. Growing hostility in the 12th Century to Italian trade led to anti-Roman Catholic policies and marked a changing relationship with the Western Holy Roman Empire, with the replacement of Latin with Greek as Byzantium’s official Imperial administrative language. The zenith of this conflict and anti-Latinism is considered a biproduct of the process of Hellenisation taking place at the time, including the Byzantine Greek Renaissance, as seen in an event known as the

“Massacre of the Latins” in April 1182 CE (Runciman 1951).

Thomas F. Madden, “The Real History of the Crusades” Archived August 2, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.Crisis Magazine, April 1, 2002, 2. (accessed October 27, 2008).