User:Pglenn789/sandbox

October 29th, 1929 is a day that shook the world. The American stock market experienced a crash that was unheard of up until that point. Immediately, investors began to take their money out of the market, American banks and businessmen began demanding payments on their foreign loans, and the American government hiked up tariff rates. All of this further exacerbated the problem, especially for a still recovering war torn Europe. Despite Ireland’s size, and its status as a still emerging nation at the time, they too were affected by the worldwide depression. After going through a bloody War for Independence and Civil War, the island nation was further set back by the depression at a time that it needed to rebuild. Although already struggling, the depression hit the family home in Ireland, dictated governmental policy, and deepened existing social problems. But the Irish were still able to maintain its way of life and strive to become a self-sufficient nation.

Background
Ireland was no larger than three million people in 1930, with the fast majority of those living in small villages or the countryside. The only relatively large urban center to speak of was Dublin with a population around half of a million.

Government
Cumann na nGaedheal was able to create a stable an extremely conservative state after the Civil War. Their economic policies concentrated on maximizing agricultural trade at a time when 53% of the working population was involved in agriculture. In the political realm, this administration was able to achieve stability for the new government and created an Irish police force, the Garda Siochana. But possibly because of its overly conservative nature, the government was unable to bolster the economy and improve the life of its people. De Valera and his Fianna Fail party were able to win in 1932 because he offered a change that the Cumann na nGaedheal could not. Fianna Fail did have an advantage that the Cumann na nGaedheal had already steered Ireland through some of the harder days of the Depression, allowing them to be more aggressive with their own policies.

De Valera’s election promises were very ambitious. He promised to abolish the oath of allegiance, end mortgage payments to the British government that they were entitled under the Land Acts, review payments such as police pensions agreed following the Anglo-Irish Treaty. Additionally, de Valera wanted to make the country self-sufficient. To do this he promised protection for industry and agriculture, reduce wages of higher ranking civil servants, and to promote the Irish language. In an effort to make his promises a reality, the External Relations Act was pass in 1936 which cut the crown out of Irish affairs. Again to show they could be self sufficient the Control on Manufactures Acts of 1932-34 restricted the amount of foreign capital that flowed into the country. However this seems contradictory to his efforts to bolster the Irish industry. Finally to add to the administrations’ legacy, a new Constitution was passed in 1937 which made an elected president the head of state.

The gap in economy between Northern Ireland and the rest of the island added to the constitutional division between them and put stress on Northern Ireland’s relationship with Britain. It was hard for both states to introduce stability when international events constantly plagued them. The partition of Ireland separated the industry of the north from the agriculture of the south. Despite the great need for support from Britain in Northern Ireland, one historian claimed that between 1934-5 only 110 minutes were given to the discussion of the problems Northern Ireland by Westminster. But Northern Ireland was determined to stick by Britain’s side to show unity, even at its own cost. When Britain passed the Gold Standard in 1925, Northern Ireland followed suit even though it damaged Belfast’s export industry and increased unemployment. However, in the end this only put further need from Britain on Northern Ireland’s behalf which hampered relations for a dwindling British treasury. There were serious riots in Northern Ireland due to high unemployment rate that demanded the British attention though. At the time, welfare for unemployment checks were consuming over a third of all rate income in Belfast, who was experiencing some of the worst unemployment. Northern Ireland was then only kept alive by subsidies from London which hampered their relationship.

Trouble with Britain loomed with de Valera’s election promise. His goal to become a self-sufficient country and his decision in March of 1932 to withheld payments for the Land Annuities that the British were due caused the Economic War between them during the Depression. After stopping the payments, Sean O’Kelly goes to Imperial Trade Conference in Ottawa in an attempt to find other dominion trading partners and lessen trade with Britain. Westminster responds by placing a 20% duty on two thirds of Irish imports. Ireland then used the Emergency Imposition of Duties Act to retaliate with tariffs of its own. The tariffs in Ireland increased from 9% to 45% over the 1931-6 period.

The value of Irish Agricultural exports dropped from 35.8 million in 1929 to 13.5 in 1935. Because both sides were experience troubles due to the economic war, the Coal-Cattle Pact was agreed to in 1935 which increased the quota of Irish cattle to Britain by 50% and stipulated that Ireland could only import coal from British sources. The dilemma later ended in 1938 with the Anglo-Irish Agreements which settled the question of the Land Annuity payments and reopened trade between the two countries. The Economic War really only hurt farmers, but agricultural production only fell 2% in Ireland.

Industry/Agriculture
At first, the WWI hampered the Irish economy as normal markets for linen, a major good for Ireland, were closed. Raw materials that were needed for shipbuilding in the ports of Ireland were being utilized in other areas for military projects. To further complicate the matter, the agricultural sector found it tough to get by as prices fluctuated. However, this was soon overturned and new orders for linen, needed for field bandages and other military supplies, came in. The port cities, like Belfast, began to receive business too as ships needed to be repaired after returning from battle or for normal maintenance. And an increase in the demand for foodstuffs for Britain increased as the war went on and the German U-boats exercised unrestricted submarine warfare.

After the war there was a high demand for Ireland’s agricultural products, but the volatile political scene at the time made it hard. As years go on there is less need for Ireland’s port cities to produce ships as other nations have built their own shipyards during the war years and better technology required less maintenance. Additionally, the fashions of the time were changing which was bad news for the linen industry. The petticoat was out and the shorter skirts were in, tablecloths were replaced with place mats, and the old cloth wing planes were a thing of the past, all of this resulting in a decreased demand for linen. All of this resulting in over 6,000 unemployed individuals in Belfast in 1927. This story is common throughout all of Northern Ireland which made the people extremely dependent on subsidies from London.

The vast majority of the Irish population lived in small agricultural holdings, totaling up to 11 million acres. Despite an emphasis from the government grain cultivation was still falling as it had been since the 1840 Famine. Pasture agriculture was still dominant with over 4 million cows in 1931. Although the largest sector of the economy at the time, between 1926 and 1936 the number of farmers fell from 655 thousand to 605 thousand, and the rate was later accelerated due to emigration. This led to an urban flight where farmers hoped to make more than their usual 15 shillings a week.

Invigorating Irish industry was an important program for the 1930s government. The War of Independence in the south of Ireland severely damaged the country's economy and transport infrastructure. This was compounded by the fact it was hard for Ireland to become self-sufficient because of its need of imported raw materials, which the country did not have, and dependence on Britain for agricultural exports. To bolster industry in the country, Ireland tried to harness their water supply to power the country, starting with the Ardnacrusha power station in 1929. This brought power to most towns but it was still lacking in the countryside as the statistic of only 50% of the population was connected to the grid by 1943.

As said before most of the population were subsistence farmers in the countryside and although there was a push towards towns at the end of the decade, most stayed put on the farms hindering the growth for a workforce for factories. Despite this, two cement factories were opened in Limerick and Drogheda to alleviate those living in poverty in towns, which according to the 1926 census were eight hundred thousand living in overcrowded conditions. All of this increased industrial output in Ireland 46% from 1931 to 1938 and increased industrial employment by 10% from 1938 to 1958, but when starting with such a small industrial sector these numbers relate to little real growth.

Home Life
Because Ireland was already torn by a War for Independence and a civil war, times were tough at home. But even with the Depression looming, things were able to remain somewhat stable on the home front. Women spent their day slaving over the bastible, the pot oven which was used for both cooking and heating. They also were in charge of caring for the family garden, getting water for the day, and caring for the smaller livestock. Men would work in the field, if the family had one, and make sure the family had enough to eat. Bacon was the main source of meat as most cows in Ireland were dairy cows. Fish was also an important source for protein that could be salted and stored during winter.

The women of the time faced hard conditions each day. There was some hope during WWI for women who saw new opportunities as men went to the front lines and they took their place in the workforce, mostly in the linen industry or the production of munitions. However, these advances were short lived. The 1935 Employment Act extended marriage bar to those in the civil service positions and teachers. The government went as far as to keep women out of jury duty, women fought back though and secured an amendment to give them the option to opt-in to jury duty. This led to only 5.6% of married women in paid employment. To avoid the marriage bar on employment, many women would not marry until very late. The 1926 census showed that 80% of men and 62% of women in the 25-30 age group unmanrried. Poor sanitation and lack of modern conveniences in the rural areas made a woman's job even harder on the farm.

Urban Life
Life in the cities or towns was not easy either. Dublin had some of the worst slums in Europe. Discontent with rural life increased emigration life rate, especially for women, but also pushed people to urban centers by the 1940s. There were attempts to eradicate slums that were created, but lack of funds and the enormity of the project made progress slow. However, living in the city did give some chance to land a good paying job and made home life a little easier with modern conveniences of running water and electricity.

Health
Ireland was plagued with health problems for its citizens throughout the time period. The Department of Home Affairs was in charge of health for the population, however it was also in charge of keeping law and order so the former fell in its importance due to a small budget. Health standards fell as a result and this was also compounded by the lack of hospitals, poor pay for people in the medical profession, and poor sanitary conditions. The TB epidemic of the time became a serious issue with no efficient health system to combat it resulting in 48% of the deaths amongst 15-25 year olds and 38% of those between 25-35 in 1938.5 Infant mortality rate was 7% in the 1930s, which was high for European standards. Because of the meager salaries that people were living on and the lack of proper facilities, families had to make their own methods to fight diseases. At home remedies were common for ailments. Those who suffered from Asthma would take a hot drink of carrageen moss and lemon juice.

Education
The education system at the time was in shambles. The School Attendance Act was passed in 1926, forcing the youth of Ireland to attend primary school. However, very few made it past this point and continued on to secondary school adding to an uneducated workforce. The Northern Ireland government also tried to improve its education system because it was in desperate need of attention. As late as 1963, half of all the schools in Northern Ireland were built prior to 1900. The Londonerry education scheme was proposed, however it was rejected by both Catholic and Protestant communities who both favored a more rigid denominational form of education. This push for a denominational form of education by both camps shows how important the role of religion was in Irish life for people of the time.

Religion
As one can expect, religion became an overwhelming part of the Irish culture. Catholicism dominated the morality of the times but also forced its way into everyday life. The Eucharistic Congress in 1932 in Dublin showed that despite differences that people of Ireland had to deal with, they were united by their faith. This is further shown by Fianna Fail's commitment to continuing the 1920s legislation to protect Irish Catholic morality through censorship, discouraging the importation of foreign literature, and banning the sale of contraceptives. If that wasn't enough to ensure the pure morality of the people of Ireland, the Carrigan Committee went further to say that modern vices were destroying the youth of the country. All this to show that there was a direct connection between religion, society, and government.

Catholicism's influence was not limited to society and government though, it took a prevalent role in families. Religious holidays took on a special significance as it was a time to celebrate and spend time with family even though the budget might be tight. Holidays like Christmas, Halloween, St. Steven's Day, and even May Day were associated with mass, a special family dinner, and some family games. Even when a holiday was not around the corner, the rosary was said every nigh and mass was attended weekly to establish a truly pious household.

Leisure Time
In the days when money was tight and work was hard, it was important to still find some leisure time. In 1932, only 5% of homes in Ireland had a radio, still mostly because of lack of electricity to remote areas but also because of expense. Those without radio but still looking for an escape from the drudge of daily life would go to the cinema on occasion, but the cinema was also seen as undermining the morality of the youth of Ireland by the elderly. Other, cheaper and more moral, forms of entertainment occupied the time of everyone in society. These included Cross-road dancing, Gaelic football, hurling, soccer, and an Annual Horse Show in Dublin always attracted a large crowd. And once every four years, much like the Olympics, the Tailteann Games were held to show off ones athletic might. So despite the unavailability of funds for much of the Irish, they still were able to make the most out of the time they had.