User:Philc 0780/Sandbox

=Random=

=Partial Differentiation=

Usage
If you have a function of two variables such that $$p = f(q,r)\,$$

then the following equation is true in general


 * $$ \frac{dp}{dx}= \frac{\partial p}{\partial q} \frac{dq}{dx} + \frac{\partial p}{\partial r} \frac{dr}{dx}$$

this allows you to calculate the rate of change of $$p$$ given the rate of change of $$q$$ and $$r$$. For example, in the case of a cone


 * $$V = \frac{\pi r^2 h}{3}$$


 * $$\frac{ \partial V}{\partial r} = \frac{ 2 \pi r h}{3}$$


 * $$\frac{ \partial V}{\partial h} = \frac{ 2 \pi r^2}{3}$$

this means that the following is true


 * $$ \frac{dV}{dt}= \frac{ 2 \pi r }{3} \bigg ( h \frac{dr}{dt} + r \frac{dh}{dt} \bigg )$$

=Ref Desk Q's=

electrons
I asked a similar question this yesterday, though this one seems much more complicated to me. I will go through my calucaltions so far, so if there are any errors, you can help me rectify them.

If you have n electrons distributed evenly around a circle radius r, distance x from another electron, what is the force of repulsion experienced by the electron not on the circle from the circle of electrons. Electrostatic repulsion is a inverse square law, and the coefficent of electrostatic force can be considered as k. using cosine rule; $$a = \sqrt{x^2 + (x+r)^2 - 2r(r+x)\cos\alpha}$$ so the force, being an inverse square is; $$F = \frac{k}{x^2 + (x+r)^2 - 2r(r+x)\cos\alpha}$$ now, seeing as always in the circle the components in y-direction will cancel, we can consider only those in the x-direction in order to caluclate a resultant force we need to consider only the x-directions components, to find this consider the triangle ABY, the angle β and distance OB are neccesary. using sine rule. $$y=-r\cos(\alpha)\,$$ therefore using sine rule, $$\sin\beta = \frac{r-r\cos(\alpha)+x}{\sqrt{x^2 + (x+r)^2 - 2r(r+x)\cos\alpha}} $$ so the x direction component of F, or Fsinβ is; $$\mathit{F_x}=\frac{k(r-r\cos(\alpha)+x)}{\big[x^2 + (x+r)^2 - 2r(r+x)\cos\alpha\big]^\frac{3}{2}}$$
 * r = radius (OA, OC)
 * x = CY
 * y = OB
 * a = AY
 * α = AOY
 * β = BAY

So to consider all the electrons; then $$\alpha = \frac{2\pi\mathit{k}}{N}$$ where N number of electrons. and k varies from 1 to N. Therfore a sum of all the forces would be.

$$\mathit{F_{total}}=\frac{k}{N}\sum_{k=1}^N\bigg[\frac{r-r\cos(\frac{2\pi k}{N})+x}{\big[x^2 + (x+r)^2 - 2r(r+x)\cos(\frac{2\pi k}{N})\big]^\frac{3}{2}}\bigg]$$

Now this is it, I really need some help simplifying this massive mess, and like yesterday I really need the summation series out of the equation if that's possible. Thank you.

data handling
$$\mathrm{R}(\parallel)\;\;\mathrm{F}=\mathrm{m}_{1}\mathrm{g}\sin\theta-\mathrm{m}_{2}\mathrm{g}\,\!$$

$$\mathrm{F}=\mathrm{ma}\,\!$$

$$\mathrm{ma}=\mathrm{m}_{1}\mathrm{g}\sin\theta-\mathrm{m}_{2}\mathrm{g}\,\!$$

$$(\mathrm{m}_1+\mathrm{m}_2)\mathrm{a}=\mathrm{m}_{1}\mathrm{g}\sin\theta-\mathrm{m}_{2}\mathrm{g}\,\!$$

$$\mathrm{a}=\frac{\mathrm{m}_{1}\mathrm{g}\sin\theta-\mathrm{m}_{2}\mathrm{g}}{\mathrm{m}_1+\mathrm{m}_2}$$

$$\mathrm{m}_1=1.000,\;\;\mathrm{m}_2=0.526,\;\;\mathrm{g}=9.8$$

$$\mathrm{v}=\frac{\Delta\mathrm{d}}{\Delta\mathrm{t}}$$

$$\mathrm{v}^2=\mathrm{u}^2+2\mathrm{a}\mathrm{s}\,\!$$

$$\mathrm{v}^2-\mathrm{u}^2=2\mathrm{a}\mathrm{s}\,\!$$

$$\frac{\mathrm{v}^2-\mathrm{u}^2}{2\mathrm{s}}=\mathrm{a}\,\!$$

$$\mathrm{u}=0,\;\;\mathrm{s}=0.25$$

$$\mathrm{F}_t=\,\!$$

$$\mathrm{R}(\parallel)\;\;\;\mathrm{m}_{1}\mathrm{g}\sin\theta-(\mathrm{m}_1+\mathrm{m}_2)a-\mathrm{m}_{2}\mathrm{g}=\mathrm{F}_t\,\!$$

$$\mathrm{m}_{2}\mathrm{g}-(\mathrm{m}_1+\mathrm{m}_2)a-\mathrm{m}_{1}\mathrm{g}\sin\theta=\mathrm{F}_t\,\!$$

$$\mathrm{m}_{2}\mathrm{g}=\mathrm{m}_{1}\mathrm{g}\sin\theta\,\!$$

$$0.526 = \sin\theta\,\!$$

$$\theta = 31.736\,\!$$

$$\Delta\mathrm{h} = 0.25\sin\theta \,\!$$

$$\mathrm{gpe} = \mathrm{m}\cdot\mathrm{g}\cdot\mathrm{h} \,\!$$

$$\Delta\mathrm{gpe}_{trolley} = 0.25\sin\theta \times 9.8 \times 1 \,\!$$

$$\Delta\mathrm{gpe}_{mass} = 0.25 \times 9.8 \times 0.526 \,\!$$

$$|\Delta\mathrm{gpe}_{mass} - \Delta\mathrm{gpe}_{trolley}| = \mathrm{ke} + \mathrm{energy}\;\mathrm{lost} \,\!$$

sense proj
(1*1.1*10^(-6))/(pi*((0.193*10^(-3))/2)^2)

$$R = \frac{\rho \times L}{A}$$

$$R = \frac{1 \times 1.1 \times 10^{-6}}{\pi \times (\frac{0.193 \times 10^{-3}}{2})^2}$$

Silicon proj
known
 * $$\rho_{p} \ \mathbf{R}\mathbf{e}\mathbf{s}\mathbf{i}\mathbf{s}\mathbf{t}\mathbf{i}\mathbf{v}\mathbf{i}\mathbf{t}\mathbf{y}\ \mathbf{o}\mathbf{f}\ \mathbf{P}\mathbf{u}\mathbf{r}\mathbf{e}\mathbf\ \mathbf{S}\mathbf{i}\mathbf{l}\mathbf{i}\mathbf{c}\mathbf{o}\mathbf{n}\ = 10^{6}\Omega \mathbf{m} = 10\ \mathbf{m}\mathbf{i}\mathbf{l}\mathbf{l}\mathbf{i}\mathbf{o}\mathbf{n}\ \Omega \mathbf{m}$$
 * $$\rho_{d} \ \mathbf{R}\mathbf{e}\mathbf{s}\mathbf{i}\mathbf{s}\mathbf{t}\mathbf{i}\mathbf{v}\mathbf{i}\mathbf{t}\mathbf{y}\ \mathbf{o}\mathbf{f}\ \mathbf{D}\mathbf{o}\mathbf{p}\mathbf{e}\mathbf{d}\ \mathbf{S}\mathbf{i}\mathbf{l}\mathbf{i}\mathbf{c}\mathbf{o}\mathbf{n}\ = 10^2\Omega \mathbf{m} = 10\ \mathbf{t}\mathbf{h}\mathbf{o}\mathbf{u}\mathbf{s}\mathbf{a}\mathbf{n}\mathbf{d}\ \Omega \mathbf{m}$$
 * $$h \ \ \mathbf{H}\mathbf{e}\mathbf{i}\mathbf{g}\mathbf{h}\mathbf{t} = 1\mathbf{m}\mathbf{m} = 10^{-3}\mathbf{m}$$
 * $$w \ \ \mathbf{W}\mathbf{i}\mathbf{d}\mathbf{t}\mathbf{h} = 1\mathbf{m}\mathbf{m} = 10^{-3}\mathbf{m}$$
 * $$l \ \ \mathbf{L}\mathbf{e}\mathbf{n}\mathbf{g}\mathbf{t}\mathbf{h} = 5\mathbf{m}\mathbf{m} = 5\times10^{-3}\mathbf{m}$$

known
 * $$\rho={{RA}\over l}$$
 * $$A = hw\,$$

therfore
 * $$\frac{\rho l}{hw}=R$$

for pure
 * $$\frac{10^{6} \times 5 \times 10^{-3}}{10^{-3}\times 10^{-3}}=R$$
 * $$\frac{10^{6} \times 5}{10^{-3}}=R$$
 * $$10^{9} \times 5=R$$
 * $$R=5 \times 10^9\Omega$$

for doped
 * $$\frac{10^{2} \times 5 \times 10^{-3}}{10^{-3}\times 10^{-3}}=R$$
 * $$\frac{10^{2} \times 5}{10^{-3}}=R$$
 * $$10^{5} \times 5=R$$
 * $$R = 5 \times 10^{5}\Omega$$

Maths Problem


Ok well I encountered this problem (I added the y to simplify some calculations a bit, but otherwise its exactly the same information i got). I tried to solve but I wasnt sure wether I had done it correctly. So I thought I'd post here for someone to maybe review it and find the faults or confirm wether its correct. So heres what I went about doing. I numbered the steps for reference in your replies.

Unfortunately this is where I got stuck. So if anyone knows where to go from here... The help would be appreciated. Philc TECI 21:04, 10 September 2006 (UTC)
 * 1) Well firstly isnce the triangles in the corners have x on both sides, we can assume they are isoceles right angled triangles, therefore the angles are 90, 45, and 45, thus meaning that all the angles in any of the shapes in this case are either 45 or 90.
 * 2) $$y = \sqrt{x^2 + x^2}$$  (pythagorus)
 * 3) The white triangle in the centre of the right hand edge is (assuming the two sides identical in length are variable z)
 * 4) $$2006-2x=z^2+z^2$$ (pythagorus)
 * 5) $$2006-2x=2z^2$$
 * 6) $$\frac{2006-2x}{2}=z^2$$
 * 7) $$\sqrt{\frac{2006-2x}{2}}=z$$
 * 8) the L shape can now be divided into 3 segments, one square in the centre which is $$y^2$$, and 2 identical rectangles which are y by z. And as such the grey area consists of
 * 9) *$$2(y(\sqrt{\frac{2006-2x}{2}}))+y^2$$
 * 10) As such the entire grey area works out to equal this when the left part of the shape is included
 * 11) *$$2(\sqrt{x^2 + x^2})(\sqrt{\frac{2006-2x}{2}})+(\sqrt{x^2 + x^2})^2+2006x$$
 * 12) Therefore, the entire size of the shape should equal
 * 13) $$8(\frac{2(\sqrt{2x^2})(\sqrt{\frac{2006-2x}{2}})+ 2x^2 +2006x}{5})$$
 * 14) $$8(\frac{2(x\sqrt{2})(\sqrt{\frac{2006-2x}{2}})+ 2x^2 +2006x}{5})$$
 * 15) $$8(\frac{2x(\sqrt{2006-2x})+ 2x^2 +2006x}{5})$$
 * 16) The two triangles with their sides against the x by 2006 shaded areas two identiacal sides can be calculated (assuming the two sides identical in length are variable a)
 * 17) $$(z+y)^2=a^2+a^2$$
 * 18) $$(z+y)^2=2a^2$$
 * 19) $$\frac{(z+y)^2}{2}=a^2$$
 * 20) $$\sqrt{\frac{(z+y)^2}{2}}=a$$
 * 21) Substituting in the other formulae, to give in terms of x leaves
 * 22) *$$\sqrt{\frac{(\sqrt{\frac{2006-2x}{2}}+2(x\sqrt{2}))^2}{2}}=a$$
 * 23) So the formula for the entire square equals
 * 24) *$$2006(\sqrt{\frac{(\sqrt{\frac{2006-2x}{2}}+2(x\sqrt{2}))^2}{2}})+2x)$$
 * 25) So now we have 2 formula for the entire shape, so we can substitute them together
 * 26) *$$2006(\sqrt{\frac{(\sqrt{\frac{2006-2x}{2}}+2(x\sqrt{2}))^2}{2}})+2x)=8(\frac{2x(\sqrt{2006-2x})+ 2x^2 +2006x}{5})$$

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=SAM76=

The SAM76 language is a list and string processor that is uniquely suited for a variety of interactive and user-directed applications, including artificial intelligence programming, and permits a high portability from machine to machine. The SAM76 language shares certain features in common with the LISP and Forth programming  languages and, pointing to the future of multiuser or concurrent systems operation, with the SHELL programming language of the UNIX operating system.

Claude Kagan, the language's developer, sought to combine within a single interpretive processor, the characteristics of two different string and general-purpose macro generators and the provisions to embed multiple infix operator mathematical systems.

SAM76 language was designed to;
 * be very pure syntactically and semantically
 * require a minimum of user keyboarding to achieve powerful results
 * fit in a very small computer system
 * permit editing,  testing, and executing modules  interactively
 * not prevent the user from doing strange things with the syntax of the language yielding, however, predictable results.

Macro generators provide one of the keys to understanding the principles behind the development of the SAM76 language. A user will define a macro (a code word that can be defined by the user to invoke a specific set of instructions to perform a routine within the program) to execute a set of instructions, usually in either machine or assembly language, and insert the macro in the program. In this way, a user need only define a routine once and then when that particular operation, or string is required, the user can substitute the macro.

Characteristics of the SAM76 language
The SAM76 language follows a well defined syntax which is easy to learn and to read. It relies heavily, however, on a system of symbols to replace the pseudo English words of BASIC and Pascal. The SAM76 interpreter also provides for a highly reactive and interactive language that can almost converse with the user from task to task. Consequently, the language has the capability of performing complex operations in program control, text editing and manipulation, gaming, simulation, and mathematics.

Because it has features similar to LISP, Forth and other list processors, SAM76 also has the capability of functioning as a query language, providing powerful human machine interaction that uses keyboard data from an interaction to modify and shape future responses. The language is also capable of growing by entension. Because, like LISP and Logo, there is almost no difference between procedures and data structures, procedures can be treated as data and be acted upon by other procedures, even procedures defined by different users. The new procedures that are mapped or created behave as if they were language primitives or inherent functions of the language. Like Logo, this means that new users can create their own separate vocabularies which can be saved and executed, adding to the language vocabulary and providing for individual customization.

Notation and Syntax
An expression may be characterised as being "active," that is to say its  value  string  is subject to rescanning, "neutral" the value will  not be rescanned or "protected" meaning "quoted" or immune from evaluation. Typically these are:
 * %active expression/ &neutral expression/  !protected string/

Like  LISP,   all  commands  and  data  objects  in  SAM76  are represented  by lists, or strings of characters. However, in the latter language, syntax plays a vital role in identifying those characters   which, because  of  their  position  in  a  given expression,  have  an  additional  meaning. The characters are called warning characters and represent the following concepts: %      start symbol for active expression &      start symbol for neutral expression !      start symbol for protected string /      end symbol for all types of expressions #      alternate start of expression :      end of active alternate expression ;      end of neutral alternate expression ,      argument separator symbol string protection pair < >    alternate protection pair @      protect or quote next single character `      ignore next single character [ ]    reserved as boundaries for special expressions Expressions may reach the scanner from various sources such as a       keyboard  or  a  file  or a communications channel. This type of       input  stream is commonly terminated by an activating character. Initially this  activating character is set to be the "=" sign, although  it  may  be  changed  using  the  "change  activator" function. Other means of terminating the input stream includes an explicit character count, the encounter of one or more specified patterns of characters, or a user-specified timing function. When characters which are also used as warning characters are to       be  part  of  the  data, they must be protected, either by being enclosed in one of the allowable protection pairs or preceded by       the single character protection code. �                The SAM76 language                                 A legal SAM76 expression is a string bounded at its left end by        a  start  symbol,  and  at  its right end by the appropriate end symbol. Elements of the expression are separated from each other by the  argument  separator. The first argument is always a       command,  or  the  name  of a user-defined string, expression or        procedure. Subsequent arguments (1, 2, 3, ... N) are treated as       required  by the command or as macros which will be plugged into the proper places of the named user-defined string. For example: o17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)~ o %ad,%mu,2,3/,%di,20,5//={10} o 17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC) The foregoing  example consists of an expression which will add the values  resulting  from the multiplication of 2 and 3, with the division  of 20 by 5. Note that expressions are scanned and evaluated from left to right and inside out. It is also possible to create user defined functions. First the user will define a "text" named "square" to be a procedure which will multiply some value "x" by "x": o17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)~ o %dt,square,!%mu,x,x///={} o 17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC) Note that  in  the foregoing step the multiplication expression has been protected by the pair of warning characters ! .../ and the act of defining with the function "dt" simply creates a data object called "square" but returns no value. The next  step is to convert the characters "x" into partitions (parameter positions)  of  value  1  using the "partition text" command: o17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC) o %pt,square,x/={} o 17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)~ �                The SAM76 language                                 If we  now  examine  the  object named square with the function "view text" whose mnemonic is "vt" we will see: o17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC) o %vt,square/= o %mu,[1],[1]/ o 17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)~ We can  make  use  of  this new function to square numbers. For example: o17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC) o %square,5/={25} o 17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)~ Or, using the mnemonic "ad" for addition: o17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC) o %square,%ad,3,2//={25} o 17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)~ �                The SAM76 language                                 ______________________________________________________________        ||                                                            ||        ||                    Descriptive examples                    || ||                                                           ||         ______________________________________________________________         When  the  SAM76  language  is  initially  started the following expression is loaded: &os,%is// This is  known  as  the  RESTART  expression and consists of an        "input   string"   command  nested  inside  an  "output  string" expression. In effect this says "Output that which results from       evaluating   that  which  is  input". When all  evaluation  is        completed   the  expression  is  reloaded  and  the  process  is        repeated. The restart  expression  is  invisible  to the user. Initially, the  requirement for user input is the result of the execution by the scanner of the "is" command. The output of the material entered  by  the user is dictated by the "os" command, for example: o17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC) o %ad,1,9/={10} o 17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)~ The user  enters  "%ad,1,9/" followed by an "=" sign to signify end of  input. The entered epression replaces the %is/ in the restart expression: &os,%ad,1,9// This results in               &os,10/ which is in turn evaluated to output the value 10. The four  ways  in which user-defined functions or texts may be        fetched or invoked are: %name, ... /           active value implied fetch &name, ... /           active value neutral implied fetch %ft,name, ... /        active value, explicit fetch text &ft,name, ... /        neutral value, explicit fetch. In the  first  three modes shown above the value string will be        rescanned  and  evaluated. The fourth expression will return the object called "name" as if it had been quoted. �                The SAM76 language                                 The first example illustrates the use of partitions to translate text by  parametrizing  the  positions of the different English words by replacing them with an internal marker which identifies the position value. Strings that remain between these partitions are referred to as "elements." o17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC) o %dt,text, o the dog and the cat and the horse/={} o %pt,text,the,dog,and,cat,horse/={ o } o %text,le,chien,et,chat,cheval/={ o le chien et le chat et le cheval} o 17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)~ The first  line  of  the example shows the definition of a text named "text"  to  contain  the  phrase "the dog ... horse." The second line  uses the "partition text" function to convert each of the words in "text" to partitions whose value will correspond to the  position  in  the  "pt"  expression  of the words being matched. The last  line  in  the  example  shows  the  invocation of the partitioned text  using a list of French words as the source of        data   to   fill  the  partitions  with  words  whose  positions correspond to the value of the partitions. Use of the "view text" function to examine the text "text" would reveal the partitions in the following manner: o17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC) o %vt,text/= o [1] [2] [3] [1] [4] [3] [1] [5] o 17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)~ Notice that  this  is  not  an "intelligent" translation of the English into  the French because any words can be inserted into the partition  frames  for  the conversion process to work. All that is  happening  here is that in input string is partitioned and a  new string, corresponding to the existing partitions, is        imposed upon the script. It is  evident from the examples that syntax plays a vital role in the  SAM76  language,  defining  the  sequence of operations within each string. Use of mnemonics reduces the overhead which, unlike BASIC, allows complicated programs to be written without an overabundance  of  code. For example, the followin example illustrates the construction of a password checking system with an automatic exit if either an incorrect password is intered or        there is no action after a given time. �                The SAM76 language                                 o17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC) o %dt,password,!%ca,%xc,0D//%os, o Enter password followed by "return" ?- /%iw,100/` o %dt,x,&is//%ig,%crd,x/,,!%gotinput//,` o !%os, TIME OUT/%ex///////= o 17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)~ Let us  now  read the first step, noting that bold face letters form  the   mnemonics   of  the  commands. The passage  below illustrates the SAM76 stream of consciousness method of writing the language and is best understood if read aloud. "Define a Text named 'password' to be a procedure (indicated by        the  first  exclamation  point)  ...  this  procedure will first        Change the Activator to be that character which results from the        'X'  base  to  Character conversion of HEX 0D (namely a carriage        return code) ...        next this procedure will Output the String: '(CR LF codes)        Enter password ... ?- ' ...        following  this,  the  procedure  will set the Input Wait timing        function  for  100 time units ... the ignore symbol that follows        is  to  permit  the use of a (CR LF code) here that is not to be        evaluated ...        the  procedure  will  then  Define  a  Text named 'x' which will        contain any material that is entered from the keyboard ... input        termination will then be either the return code specified by the        initial  'change activator' command, or with time out after time set by the 'input wait' function ... subsequent to  input or time out, the procedure tests to see If        Greater  the number of Characters to the Right of the Divider in        'x'  than  zero  (indicated  by  the null string between the two        adjacent commas) ... if 'x' contains one or more characters then control is transferred to a procedure 'gotinput' to be defined, else we  will  Output  the  String  ' TIME OUT' and EXit to the operating system."       However, if the procedure finds that there are characters in the        set (x), then the following routine applies:        	o17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)        	o  %dt,gotinput,!%ii,&ft,x/,SAM76,!%os,        	o  You got it right/%ri//,!%os,        	o  Wrong - Try again/%password//////=        	o        	17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)~        Translated, this second procedure reads:        �                 The SAM76 language                                        "Define a Text named "gotinput" to be a procedure that will test to determine  if  the content of 'x' is Identical to the string 'SAM76' ... if it is identical then Output the String '(CR LF        code)You  got  it  right' and Return the user to the Initialized condition ... if not  identical then Output the String 'CR LF        code)Wrong  ...'  and  invoke  the  procedure  named  'password'        again."        �                 The SAM76 language                                        The  next  example  illustrates  the  use of the multi-partition        capability of the SAM76 language. A multi-partition is a special        type  of  partition  which  is filled by all arguments of a list        whose positions, counting from the left, are equal to or greater        than  the  value of the multi-partition. Each term from the list        which  is  placed  in  the  multi-partition  is  preceded by the        "argument separator" character.        This  permits the processing of lists of undefined and arbitrary        lengths.  The  elements  of  the  list  may  be text strings, or        procedures.   The   multi-partition   also   provides  tools  to        manipulate matrices and other types of arrays. The procedure which is defined below is designed to tabulate the names of the files on a disk giving their size. o17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC) o %dt,tabulate,!%loop%lf,@,////= o %dt,loop,!%ii,q1,,,!%os, o q1 - %qfs,q1//%loopmp2//////= o %pt,loop,q1/%mt,loop,,mp2/= o %vt,loop/= o %ii,[1],,,!%os, o [1] - %qfs,[1]//%loop[#2]/// o 17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)~ A procedure  named  "tabulate" is defined as an invocation to a        procedure named "loop" ... arguments to this procedure come from the evaluation of the "lf" function which returns a list of file names ... each file name is preceded by a comma. A procedure  named  "loop"  is  defined  which  through a dummy argument q1, to be parametrized, tests for the end of the list. If the  end of the list is not reached, then an "output string" function is  executed  with  the  name of the current file name being plugged  into  the two other q1 positions. The first will merely display the file name, and the second is an argument to a       "query  file  size"  function. At the  completion  of the "os" function the procedure "loop" is reinvoked with arguments being the second term of this list to its end. �                The SAM76 language                                 The "partition text" and "multi-partition text" expressions are used to convert the dummy entries in loop to appropriate values. In order to execute the foregoing program we merely enter: %tabulate/= and the tabulation will follow. �                The SAM76 language                                 Two examples  of  the  use of SAM76 in the solution of problems using recursion are shown below. The first  procedure  calculates  the  integer factorial of any number. The procedure name is 'FAC' and a View Text of FAC would display: %ii,[1],1,1,!%mu,[1],%FAC,%su,[1],1///// For example the factorial of 30 would be determined thus: o17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC) o %FAC,30/={265252859812191058636308480000000} o 17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)~ The second  example  illustrates  a  recursive way to solve the problem of the towers of Hanoi, a favorite with afficionadoes of       this type of language; Viewing Text named "HANOI" we see: %ii,[1],0,,!%HANOI,%su,[1],1/,[2],[4],[3]/! Move Ring [1] from [2] to [3]/%HANOI,%su,[1],1/,[4],[3],[2]/// Assuming three  towers  named  "here", "middle" and "there" the moves required  to  move  4  rings from "here" to "there" using "middle" as a way station would be determined as follows: o17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC) o %HANOI,4,here,there,middle/={ o Move Ring 1 from here to middle o Move Ring 2 from here to there o Move Ring 1 from middle to there o Move Ring 3 from here to middle o Move Ring 1 from there to here o Move Ring 2 from there to middle o Move Ring 1 from here to middle o Move Ring 4 from here to there o Move Ring 1 from middle to there o Move Ring 2 from middle to here o Move Ring 1 from there to here o Move Ring 3 from middle to there o Move Ring 1 from here to middle o Move Ring 2 from here to there o Move Ring 1 from middle to there} o 17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)17:11, 2 August 2007 (UTC)~ These  examples   indicate   that  the  SAM76  language  offers interesting possibilities  to programmers because its structure resembles the  structure  of logical or procedural thought very closely, and its system of ready-to-hand mnemonics can eliminate much of the coding overhead associated with BASIC. �                The SAM76 language                                 Currently, the SAM76 language enjoys implementation on most CP/M systems including the Apple II and IIe, as well as under MSX-DOS and on the very much larger DEC System 10. �                The SAM76 language                                 ______________________________________________________________        ||                                                            ||        ||                     Resident Functions                     || ||                                                           ||         ______________________________________________________________         All resident functions consist of not less than two and not more than three  alphabetic  characters. In general  the  mnemonic assigned consists,  in the case of single word commands, of the first two  letters of the command. In the case of multiple word commands, the  mnemonic consists of the first letter of each of        the several words which form the command. Each resident  function in a standard system has assigned to it        an  abitrary  serial  number. This number is used to precisely identify the formal definition of each function. This method of       correlation serves several purposes, namely, ... (1) An  implementation  of the SAM76 language may be defined in        terms of the available function numbers and initial selection of        function  mnemonics. The user  can  then safely assume correct operation of functions if the implementation definition matches the one being used. (2) A more important use for this identification scheme relates to  the  international  usage  of  SAM76. Commands and  their associated mnemonics may be clear in one user's language such as       "English,"  but  be  obscure in some other language as "French." The provision  of a function in the SAM76 language that changes the mnemonics  in the resident function tables permits the most effective use of command words in a variety of languages. (3) Portability  of  user scripts across international language boundaries is simplified since it is not necessary to translate the command  arguments  in  the  programs  from one language to        another. Instead the  state  of  the  machine  may  be readily switched from one mode to the other at any time. The list  of  functions  in  the following table is arranged by        functional   category. The first  argument  is  the  function mnemonic. Subsequent arguments are identified by abbreviations as defined  below. The active form for each function is shown. The neutral  form  of  a  function is shown only in those cases where a different action is performed from its active form. This is the case only for those functions which have a null value. Note that the functions listed in this description form only the minimal set of a standard implementation of the SAM76 language. Some of  these  functions  have  sub functions; other functions exist in specialized system implementations. �                The SAM76 language                                 ______________________________________________________________        ||                                                            ||        ||        ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE LIST OF FUNCTIONS         || ||                                                           ||         ______________________________________________________________         %function,arguments,......./            Active expression &function,arguments,........../        Neutral expression x,x1,... "x" base (binary, octal, hex) numbers d,d1,... Decimal base numbers n,n1,... "n" base (arithmetic) numbers s0             Prefixing string (as in lists) s,s1,... character strings f              file name t              text name vz             default value v-,v+,v0       conditional value vt,vf          true/false value sub            indicates sub-functions - using "lf,s0" as subfunction gives list. A hyphen  following  the  function  number  signifies that this function  has   been  added  to  th  list  since  the  original publication in  the "Mc Graw Hill Personal Computer Programming        Encyclopedia" in 1985. TEXT FUNCTIONS TEXT MANIPULATION 103    %dt,t,s,d1,d2/          ;Define Text 104    %et,t1,t2,...,t/        ;Erase Text 105    %lt,s0/                 ;List Text 106    %ft,t,s1,s2,...,s/      ;Fetch Text 114    %ht,t/                  ;Hide Text 118    %vt,t1,t1,...,t/        ;View Texts 132    %ct,t1,t2,t3,...t/      ;Combine Texts 206    %ea/                    ;Erase All TEXT DIVISION 137    %fc,t,vz/               ;Fetch Character 138    %fdc,t,d,vz/            ;Fetch "D" Characters 139    %fde,t,d,vz/            ;Fetch "D" Elements 140    %fdm,t,d,s,vz/          ;Fetch "D" Matches 141    %fe,t,vz/               ;Fetch Element 142    %ff,t,d,vz/             ;Fetch Field 143    %fl,t,s,vz/             ;Fetch Left match 144    %fr,t,s,vz/             ;Fetch Right match 145    %fp,t,x1,x2,...,x/      ;Fetch Partition 146    %md,t,d/                ;Move Divider to pos. "d" &md,t,d/               ;Move Divider "d" positions     � The SAM76 language                                147    %crd,t/                 ;Characters right of divider 148    %cld,t/                 ;Characters Left of Divider 197    %qld,t/                 ;Query Left of Divider 198    %qrd,t/                 ;Query Right of Divider 207    %ed,t,d1,d2,vz/         ;Extract "D" characters 210    %ftb,t,s,vz/            ;Fetch To Break character 211    %fts,t,s,vz/            ;Fetch To Span character STRING FUNCTIONS 150    %hm,t,s/                ;How many Matches 160    %ai,s0,s1,s2,...,s/     ;Alphabetic Insertion 161    %as,s0,s1,s2,...,s/     ;Alphabetic Sort 162    %ps,d,s1,s2/            ;Pad String 163    %rs,s/                  ;Reverse String 164    %ds,d,s/                ;Duplicate String 168    %tr,t,s/                ;Trim 209    %nu,s1,s2,...,s/        ;Null 212    %hc,s/                  ;How many Characters 214    %lw,s0,s1,s2,...,s/     ;List Where 215    %ra,d,s1,s2,s3,...,s/   ;Return Argument 247    %rj,d,s1/               ;Return Justified lines 248    %rp,c,d,s1/             ;Return Padded lines BRANCH FUNCTIONS 111    %ni,vt,vf/              ;Neutral Implied 126    %yt,t,s,vt,vf/          ;Ys There 127    %tb,t,vt,vf/            ;Text Branch 135    %ii,s1,s2,vt,vf,.../    ;If Identical 136    %ig,d1,d2,vt,vf,.../    ;If Greater 159    %ab,s1,s2,vt,vf/        ;Alphabetic Branch 226    %fb,f,vt,vf/            ;File Branch 900    %gel,d1,d2,v+,v0,v-/    ;Greater Equal or Less MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS ARITHMETIC 128    %ad,n1,n2,n3,...,n/     ;Add 129    %su,n1,n2,...,n/        ;Subtract 130    %di,n1,n2,vz/           ;Divide 131    %mu,n1,n2/              ;Multiply LOGICAL 186    %or,x1,x2/              ;Or the bits 187    %and,x1,x2/             ;And the bits 188    %not,x/                 ;Not (complement) the bits 189    %rot,d,x/               ;Rotate the bits 190    %sh,d,x/                ;Shift the bits� The SAM76 language                                PARTITION FUNCTIONS 107    %pt,t,s1,s2,...,s/      ;Partition Text 108    %pc,d/                  ;Partition Character 109    %mt,t,s1,s2,...,s/      ;Multi-part Text 110    %mc,d/                  ;Multi-part Character 149    %hp,t,d/                ;How many Partitions 151    %ep,t,p1,p2,...,p/      ;Erase Partitions 167    %qp,t/                  ;Query Partition I/O FUNCTIONS 101    %os,s/                  ;Output String 102    %is/                    ;Input String 115    %ic/                    ;Input Character 116    %id,d/                  ;Input "D" Characters 117    %im,s1,s2,...,s/        ;Input to Match 213    %iw,n/                  ;Input Wait 241    %lic,s0/                ;List Input Channels 242    %loc,s0/                ;List Output Channels 245    %sic,sym/               ;Select Input Channel 246    %soc,sym/               ;Select Output Channel 264    %qio/                   ;Query I/O assignments 265    %sio,iobyte/            ;Set I/O byte STORAGE FUNCTIONS 216    %lf,s0/                 ;List Files 217    %qfs,filename/          ;Query File Size 219    %qfe/                   ;Query File Extension 220    %bf,f/                  ;Bring File 221    %sfe,extension/         ;Set File Extension 222    %sf,f/                  ;Store File 223    %sdu,dir/               ;Select Directory Unit 224    %ef,f/                  ;Erase File 225    %qdu/                   ;Query Directory Unit 233    %dif,filename/          ;Designate Input Filename 234    %dof,filename/          ;Designate Output Filename 235    %rfr/                   ;Read File Record 236    %wfr,s/                 ;Write File Record 243    %rf,filename/           ;Read File 244    %wf,filename,s/         ;Write File RANDOM NUMBER 252    %rn,n/                  ;Random Number 253    %srn,n/                 ;Seed Random Number �                The SAM76 language                                 CONVERSION 170    %xc,x1,x2,...,x/        ;X to Character 171    %cx,s0,s/               ;Character to X        172     %xd,x/                  ;X to Decimal 173    %dx,d/                  ;Decimal to X        GRAPHICS 174    %pl,sub,s1,...,s/       ;Plot 175    %wi,xn1,yn1/            ;Write Initialize 176    %wx/                    ;Write X displacement 177    %wy/                    ;Write Y displacement 178    %wr/                    ;Width Right 179    %wl/                    ;Width Left 180    %ws,xn1,yn1,...,xn,yn/  ;Write Straight lines SOFTWARE "Z" COUNTERS 182    %zd,r,v-,v0,v+/         ;"Z" reg. Decrement and branch 183    %zi,r,v-,v0,v+/         ;"Z" reg. Increment and branch 184    %zq,r/                  ;"Z" reg. Query 185    %zs,r,n/                ;"Z" reg. Set TRACE MODES 124    %tma/                   ;Trace Mode All deactivated &tma/                  ;Trace Mode All activated 125    %tm,d/                  ;Trace Mode activated &tm/                   ;Trace Mode deactivated CONTROL FUNCTIONS 113    %ca,s/                  ;Change Activator 133    %cnb,d/                 ;Change Number Base 134    %qnb/                   ;Query Number Base 157    %sfd,fun,dev/           ;Specify Function Device 158    %sar/                   ;Set Auto Return on line feed 169    %ut,cc/                 ;User Trap 191    %cll,d/                 ;Change Line Length 192    %qll/                   ;Query Line Length 193    %cin,t1,d1,...,t,d/     ;Change Id Number 194    %qin/                   ;Query Id Number 195    %cfc,d1,s/              ;Change Fill Character schema 196    %qfc,s0/                ;Query Fill Character schema 199    %sem,dev/               ;Set "Echoplex" Mode 200    %cxb,d/                 ;Change X base 201    %qxb/                   ;Query X base 202    %qof/                   ;Query Overflow Functions 203    %cro,s1/                ;Change Rub Out character schema� The SAM76 language                               <Page No.  20> 204    %qro/                   ;Query Rub Out character schema 205    %qta/                   ;Query Text Area 227    %qcs/                   ;Query Command String 237    %@t/                    ;wh@ is processor Title 238    %@f,s0/                 ;wh@ are Functions 239    %@n/                    ;wh@ is processor ver. Number 240    %@cn,current,new/       ;Change Name of function 250    %cwc,s1/                ;Change Warning Characters 251    %qwc/                   ;Query Warning Characters 261    %cws,d/                 ;Change Work Space 262    %qws/                   ;Query Work Space 266    %cpc,x1,t1,...,tn/      ;Change Protection Class 267    %qpc,s0,t1,t2,...,t/    ;Query Protection Class MISC. FUNCTIONS 112    %ex,f/                  ;Exit 155    %xll,s0/                ;Xamine Label List 156    %xal,label,x/           ;Xamine Address of Label 165    %rr,s1/                 ;Return to Restart 166    %ri/                    ;Restart Initialized 228    %lff,s0/                ;List File Functions 231    %sw,s1,s2,s3,...,s/     ;Switches 232    %sy,s1,s2,...,s/        ;System Functions 257    %ti,s0/                 ;Time 258    %sti,hh,mm,ss/          ;Set Time 259    %da,s0/                 ;Date 260    %sda,da,mo,yr/          ;Set Date 268    %nud,func,arguments/    ;Null Display mode 289 -  %rgc,d/                 ;Read Game Controller 290 -  %ipb,d,t,f/             ;If Push Button 291 -  %san,d,x/               ;Set Annunciator 301 -  %dow/                   ;Day Of Week 303 -  %bsr,subfun,arg2,..../  ;BSR controller functions 304 -  %lef,s0/                ;List Extended Functions EXPERIMENTATION FUNCTIONS 119    %xr,x/                  ;eXamine Register 120    %xw,x1,x2/              ;eXperimental Write in reg. 121    %xrp,x/                 ;eXamine Register Pair 122    %xwp,x1,x2/             ;eXperimental Write in reg. Pair 123    %xj,x/                  ;eXperimental Jump 254    %xqs,s0/                ;X Query work Space 255    %xi,port/               ;eXperimental Input 256    %xo,x,port/             ;eXperimental Output 269    %xrs,unit,trk,sec,s0/   ;X Read Sector 270    %xws,unit,trk,sec,X/    ;X Write Sector 271    %xu,sub,arguments/      ;Xperimental User 272    %xqf,s/                 ;eXperimental Query Function 273    %xcf,s,x/               ;eXperimental Change Function �                The SAM76 language                                <Page No.  21> SYSTEM OR MACHINE DEPENDENT FUNCTIONS 274 -  %trs,subf,a1,a2,../     ;TRS 80 Model 1 288 -  %son,subf,a1,a2,../     ;SONY SMC70 302 -  %pcc,subf,a1,a2,../     ;PC Compatibles 305 -  %msx,subf,a1,a2,../     ;MSX machines GRAPHICS PRINTER FUNCTIONS 287 -  %eps,subf,a1,a2,../     ;EPSON MX, FX &c. 295 -  %ips,subf,a1,a2,../     ;Itoh Print System �                The SAM76 language                                <Page No.  22> ______________________________________________________________        ||                                                            ||        ||                         References                         || ||                                                           ||         ______________________________________________________________         1.      Strachey,  C.  -  "A  general  purpose  macrogenerator", Computer Journal, Vol. 8, No. 3, Oct. 1965 p. 225; 2.     Hall,   Andrew   D.  -  "The  M6  macroprocessor",  Bell Telephone Labs; Computer Science Report No. 2; 1971; 3.     Roichel,  Ancelme  &  al. "SAM76 Language System", DECUS (Digital Equipment  User's  Group) library, Maynard, Mass., No. 10-342, 1982.       4.      Kagan,  Claude  A. R. - "A string language Processor for        small machines", Proceedings of the ACM SIGPLAN Symposium on the Pedagogical Applications  of  small  Computers,  University  of        Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, Nov 18, 1971. 5.     Kagan, Claude A. R., "The SAM76 Language", IEEE Computer Society Repository, R76-301, August 1976. 6.     Roichel, Ancelme, and Nicholas, Karl, "SAM76 - The First        Language  Manual", SAM76 Inc., Pennington, N.J., Second Edition, 1978.       7.      Various  -  "SAM76 Language - descriptions and updates", Dr. Dobb's Jounal, Volume 3 for the year 1977. 8.     Kagan,  Claude  A.  R.  and  Nicholas,  Karl, "The SAM76        Language",   in   "Mc   Graw  Hill  Personal  Computer  Language        Encyclopedia", NYC, 1985. 9.     Kagan, Claude A. R. and Nicholas, Karl, "Exotic Language        of  the Month - The SAM76 language", Computer Language Magazine, November 1985. 10.    Kagan,  Claude  A.  R.  and  Nicholas,  Karl, "SAM76 and        TRAC", in Computer Language, January 1986, page 10. �                The SAM76 language                                <Page No.  23> ______________________________________________________________        ||                                                            ||        ||                      ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS                      || ||                                                           ||         ______________________________________________________________         The   following  people  contributed  in  various  ways  to  the development of the SAM76 language and its implementations: Roger Amidon,  Neil  Colvin,  Carl  Galletti,  Barry  Lubowsky,  Karl Nicholas, L.  G.  Schear. Among the many others who contributed are the following members of a former (1967-1971) group of high school students  in New Jersey known as the R.E.S.I.S.T.O.R.S.: Chuck Ehrlich, J. N. B. King, Gnat Kuhn, Barry Klein, Bob Evans, David  Theriault,   John   Levine,   Gifford   Marzoni,   Peter Eichenberger, Jordan Young, Johnny Gorman, and Joseph Tulloch. Further credit should be given to the following who assisted in        many  ways in promoting and implementing the SAM76 language on a        variety  of machines: Larry Stein of PRODIGY computers of N. J., Mark Wolinsky  -  Jim  and Dave Hair of Floppy Disk Services of        Princeton, N. J., Dr. Al Katz at Trenton State College of N. J., Hank Beechold also of Trenton State College who was instrumental in polishing up the material for the Mc Graw Hill publication. In addition  thanks to the numerous "pioneers" who acquired the SAM76 language  and  who  through  their comments and feed back helped to support continuing effort for the last ten years. Claude A. R. Kagan - 1986

=Weirdo Bug=

=UEFA Cup=

History
The first incarnation of the UEFA cup was the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup was the brainchild of Ernst Thommen from Switzerland, Italy’s Ottorino Barrasi (both of whom became future vice-presidents of FIFA and Sir Stanley Rous, the future president of FIFA.

The competition lasted from 1955 to 1958, was a tournament open to cities that had hosted trade fairs, and not necessarily clubs - cities with more than one club sent representative teams (e.g. London).

The cities that participated in the initial tournament were Barcelona, Basle, Birmingham, Copenhagen, Frankfurt, Lausanne, Leipzig, London, Milan and Zagreb. This tournament was only supposed to last for two years but it ended up lasting for three. In which 23 games were played. The winner was Barcelona, who only fielded players from FC Barcelona beat the London XI side 8-2 on aggregate in the final.

A second tournament took place between 1958 and 1960, this tournament the organisers altered the format, making it club, as well as city teams that could enter, but the teams still had to come from cities the hold trade fairs, and changing the competition to a knockout with the sixteen teams that entered, it was also won by Barcelona. The third tournament was held over the course of the 1960-61 season, and all subsequent tournaments have been held on a yearly basis. In 1962 the number of entrants had gone up to 32, and again in 1967 to 48, 60 in 1968. And for the 1969-70 tournaments there were 64 teams starting. Today there are more than 100.

As time progressed, the competition saw more clubs and fewer representative sides enter, so that by the mid-1960s, it was exclusively for clubs, who usually qualified by virtue of a high finish in their domestic league. However, a rule that only one club per city could enter was applied. In the early days of the tournament, the southern European clubs dominated, notably Barcelona and Valencia, winning the competition five times between them. In 1968 Leeds won the competition, and were the first northern European club to do so.

The competition completely dropped its link with the trade fairs and the organisation responsibilities were handed over to UEFA, as they were the only organisation to have good enough administration and knowledge of the sport to run such a competition. UEFA Cup in 1971, with Tottenham Hotspur F.C being the first winner of the UEFA Cup. However, the 'one club per city' rule was only rescinded in 1975; Everton had finished fourth in the English league and could thus qualify, but were barred from entry because Liverpool had also qualified by coming second. Everton appealed, saying the rule was an unfair anachronism, and UEFA agreed to overturn it.

The competition was traditionally open to the runners-up of domestic leagues, but in 1999, the competition was merged with the Cup Winners' Cup. Since then the winners of domestic cup competitions have also entered the UEFA Cup. Also clubs that were eliminated in the third round of the UEFA Champions League and the eight third placed teams at the end of the group phase could go and compete in the UEFA Cup. Also admitted to the competition are three Fair Play representatives, three UEFA Intertoto Cup ‘winners’ and winners of some selected domestic league cup competitions.

The winners keep the trophy for a year, and after handing it back, can keep a four fifths size replica permanently. The regulations also states that the original trophy is handed to any club that wins the UEFA Cup three times in a row, or five times overall though, this has not happened, yet.

=2010 FIFA World Cup=

Venues
In 2005, the organisers released a provisional list of 13 venues to be used for the World Cup, to be eventually narrowed down to ten: Bloemfontein, Cape Town, Durban, Johannesburg (two), Kimberley, Nelspruit, Orkney, Polokwane, Port Elizabeth, Pretoria (two), and Rustenburg.

On 17 March, 2006, FIFA officially announced the final list of venues:





=2006 FIFA World Cup=

Seeding
To calculate the seeding for the 2006 FIFA World Cup, FIFA used the FIFA World Rankings current and past standings) in combination with the previous world cup performances of national teams, to determine their seeds for the World Cup . It uses the points obtained from the 1998 FIFA World Cup and the 2002 FIFA World Cup averaged in a 1:2 ratio respectively, added to the average amount of points that each team has at three given dates (at ratio 1:1:1), December 2003, December 2004, and November 2005. This generates a view to how well the teams have performed over the last ten years (since the rankings in 2003 include results from eight years previous to that) with a specific focus on how the teams have performed in the FIFA World Cup on previous occasions. Obviously if a team did not qualify for the previous two World Cups, their final total will be significantly less, as is the reason the Czech Republic are ranked so low on the seedings, despite being only 6th, 4th, and 2nd in the world on the rankings at the given dates.

=European Football Championship=

Birth of the Competition
In 1956, the groundwork for a European national team competition was laid. Two years later, in 1958, the first European Nations Cup began. The original format of the competition saw the early rounds played in home and away matches between the countries on a knockout basis. This continued until the semi-finals, where the remainder of the competition was played in the host country, chosen from the four semi-finalists.

The French Football Federation’s Henri Delaunay came up with the idea of a European championship in 1927. Given the immense efforts that Delaunay had put into setting up a European national teams competition, UEFA deemed it appropriate that the inaugural competition be hosted by France. The trophy presented to the competition winner still bears his name.

The first final was held in Paris and saw the Soviet Union defeat Yugoslavia, after extra time, and be first to have their name engraved onto the trophy.

The 1964 competition was the first European Nations Cup to be affected by politics as it saw Greece refusing to play Albania as they were technically (though not officially) at war. The finals were hosted by Spain, and they saw the hosts beat the Soviet Union 2-1 in Madrid.

New Format introduced
The European Nations Cup changed its name to the UEFA European Football Championship for 1968 and also a new format was introduced. Eight groups of seeded teams played each other twice and the top side of each group proceeded to two-legged quarter finals. The semi-finals and final were played in the host country of Italy who won the competition after a 2-0 replay of the final, having drawn 1-1 in the first against Yugoslavia.

In the 1972 tournament, the same structure was retained, with Belgium being the host of the finals. Germany won the competition, beating the Soviet Union 2-0 in the final. The 1976 final round was hosted by Yugoslavia. In the final, Czechoslovakia squandered a two-goal lead before penalties were needed. When Uli Hoeness missed, it allowed Antonín Panenka to chip into the space vacated by Sepp Maier's anticipatory dive for a Czechoslovakian victory.

Another Change
In 1980 UEFA introduced a new format, which saw eight teams go to the finals instead of four, and then play each other in two groups of four teams; the winner of each group then proceeded to the final. Germany faced Belgium in the final, which they won 2-0 after two goals from Horst Hrubesch. However the newer format was not retained in 1984, and a different format was used, again employing group stages, but this time in place of only the quarter-finals. The top two teams from each of the two groups progressed to the semi-finals. The competition was held in France for the second time. The hosts won 2-0 in Paris against Spain with goals from Michel Platini and Bruno Bellone.

The 1988 competition was held in Germany, while the format from the 1984 competition was retained. Marco Van Basten led the Netherlands, scoring what was later voted the best goal ever in the competition.

Great Political Change
The 1992 competition was held in Sweden during a time of European political change, a united Germany was represented and as a result of the break up of the Soviet Union, a Commonwealth of Independent States of the former Soviet Union. Yugoslavia made it to the finals but were excluded as a result of hostilities in their country, Denmark replaced them. Surprisingly, the Danes went on to win the competition after a 2-0 victory over world champions Germany in the final.

With the break up of the Soviet Union all of the former Soviet bloc countries were required to enter separately. Now that there were more teams, a format that accommodated this was required. With 48 teams entering the competition, and after the enlargement of the World Cup which had more European sides qualifying for it than the European Championships themselves, 16 teams travelled to the finals in England. The teams were put into 4 groups, the winner and runner up of each group progressed to a new round of quarter-finals. The semi-finals and final remained the same. The Germans won in the final over underdogs Czech Republic with a golden goal.

The New Millenia
Belgium and the Netherlands became the first countries to jointly host the event in 2000. France won, again the final was decided by golden goal, David Trezeguet was the scorer. In 2004 the event was held in Portugal, with the silver goal rule being used for the first time. The rule saw Greece beat the Czech Republic in the semi-finals. Underdogs Greece went on to win the competition, when they had been put at pre-tournament odds of 100 to 1. The next tournament will be co-hosted by Switzerland and Austria in 2008.

Qualifying
In order to qualify a team must be winners or runners-up in one the seven qualifying groups. After this a team proceeds to the finals round in the host country, although hosts qualify for the tournament automatically. The qualifying phase begins in the autumn after the preceding FIFA World Cup, almost two years before the finals.

The groups for qualification are drawn by a UEFA committee using seeding, seeded teams include reigning champions, and other teams on the basis of their performance in the preceding FIFA World Cup qualifying, and the last European Football Championship qualifying. To obtain an accurate view of the teams abilities, a ranking is produced, this is calculated by taking the total number of points won by a particular team, and dividing it by the number of games played, i.e., points per game, in the case of a team having hosted one of the two previous competitions, and therefore having qualified automatically, only the results from the single most recent qualifying competition are used. If two teams have equal points per game, the committee then bases their positions in the rankings on;


 * 1) Coefficient from the matches played in its most recent qualifying competition.
 * 2) Average goal difference.
 * 3) Average number of goals scored.
 * 4) Average number of away goals scored.
 * 5) Drawing of lots.

Groups
The qualifying phase is played in a group format, the composition of the groups is determined through means of a draw of teams from pre-defined seeded bowls. The draw takes place after the preceding World Cup's qualifying competition. For the 2008 European Football Championship, the group qualifying phase consists of seven groups, one of eight teams, and the remainder of seven teams each.

The qualifying phase is done in groups, each a effectively a mini league, where the highest ranked team, after all the teams have played each other home and away, progresses to the finals tournament, as with most leagues, the points are dealt as three for a win, one for a draw, and none for a loss. In the eventuality of one or more teams having equal points after all matches have been played, the following criteria is used to distinguish the sides;


 * 1) Higher number of points obtained in the group matches played among the teams in question.
 * 2) Superior goal difference from the group matches played among the teams in question.
 * 3) Higher number of goals scored in the group matches played among the teams in question.
 * 4) Higher number of goals scored away from home in the group matches played among the teams in question.
 * 5) Results of all group matches:
 * 6) Superior goal difference
 * 7) Higher number of goals scored
 * 8) Higher number of goals scored away from home
 * 9) Fair play conduct.
 * 10) Drawing of lots.

Final Tournament
Sixteen teams progress to the finals tournament, for the 2008 tournament they will be the winners and runners up of the seven qualifying groups, and joint hosts Austria and Switzerland. These sixteen teams are divided equally into four groups, A, B, C and D, each consisting of four teams. The groups are drawn up by the UEFA administration, again using seeding. The seeded teams being the host nations, the reigning champions, subject to qualification, and those with the best points per game coefficients over the qualifying phase of the tournament and the previous World Cup qualifying. Other finalists will be assigned to groups by means of a draw, using coefficients as a basis.

The four aforementioned groups are again played in a league format, this time, a team plays its opponents once each, in the host nation, not home and away. The same scoring system is used (three points for a win, one point for a draw, no points for a defeat). A schedule for the group matches will be bran up, but the last two matches in a group must kick off simultaneously. The winner and runner up of each groups progresses to the quarter finals, where a knockout system is used (the two teams play each other once, the winner progresses), this is used in all subsequent rounds as well. The winners of the quarter finals matches progress to the semi finals, where the winners play in the final. If in any of the knockout rounds after normal playing time, the scores are still equal, extra time and penalties are employed to separate the two teams.

=Football in Norway= Football is the most popular sport in Norway. The Football Association of Norway was founded in 1902 and the first international match was played in 1908.

History
In 1885 Christiania Footballclub [sic] the first ever Norwegian club was founded in Oslo, which was formerly known as Christiania. The club played its first match the next year against a group of english sailors, infront of over 2000 spectators. The Football Association of Norway (the NFF), was founded in 1902, and quickly established a cup competition. After the NFF joined FIFA in 1908, Norway had its first ever international match, away against Sweden in Gothenburg, despite Norway taking the lead after a mere 45 seconds, Sweden went on to win 11-3. In 1911 Norway hosted its first international in Oslo, again against Sweden, this time Norway lose 4-0. In 1912 the Norwegian national football team attended the Olympic games, and were knocked out after losing to Denmark and Austria 7-0 and 1-0 respectively. The NFF hosted the FIFA congress in Oslo in 1914, where a national leage was established with six teams competed for the title Drafn, Frigg, Kvik/Halden, Larvik Turn, Mercantile and Odd, who went on to be the first league winners. The Norwegian national mens team won their only medal at an international championship in 1935 at the Germany Olympic Games. In the relatively succesful tournament Norway beat Turkey and hosts Germany 4-0 and 2-0 respectively, losing to Italy in the semi-final, then beating Poland 3-2 in the third-place play-off to take the bronze medal. The team is known in Norway as "Brogenslat" meaning the Bronze team.

The Football Association of Norway
The Football Association of Norway (NFF) (Norwegian: Norges Fotballforbund) is the governing body of football in Norway. It was formed in 1902. It organises the men's and women's national teams and the Norwegian Premier League. The current president of the NFF is Sondre Kåfjord, while the General Secretary is Karen Espelund. By January 1st, 2004, there are 1,814 clubs organized in Norway, and 373,532 registered players.

The NFF joined FIFA in 1908, and UEFA in 1954.

League system
The current national league system administered by the football association is organised as 1-1-4-24, where Tippeligaen is the highest Norwegian level and Adeccoligaen the second highest, followed by four third level (Division 2) and 24 fourth level (Division 3).

2.5 teams promote from Adeccoligaen to Tippeligaen. The third last team in Tippeligaen play play-off matches against the third best team in Adeccoligaen. 4 teams, the winner of each group, promote from Division 2 to Adeccoligaen. 12 teams (12 of the 24 group winners) promote from Division 3 to Division 2. The group winners play play-off matches.

Cup system

 * Main article: Norwegian football cup

National team

 * Main article: Norway national football team

Wiki Timeline
=Heysel Stadium disaster=

In 1984 the, liverpool reached the champions league cup final, which was, by a coincedental technicallity, against AS Roma at their home ground of Stadio Olimpico. After a close match that failed to seperate the two teams, Liverpool won the cup on penalties. After the match, gangs of Roma fans set out and assaulted liverpool supporters who were making there ways back to their hotels. Many fans were attacked, stabbed and slashed, and one boy who was particularly badly attacked, recquired 200 stitches in his face alone. Many fans were refused entry to their hotels or guest houses, fearing that the mobs would attack their premises. The Italian police did little to calm the situation, and many attacked and robbed the english supporters, in revenge for the local teams defeat to liverpool. Many English fans who had been refused travel to the airport by coach drivers fearing the marauding gangs, sought refuge in the British Embassy. After the events of Rome 1984, english hooligans put aside their differences when Liverpool met Juventus in the 1985 final, and sought to deal retribution of their own kind, its claimed that alot of the most notorious english firms were ther, including MIGS from Luton, Bushwackers from Millwall, the ICF from West Ham and the Gremlins from Newcastle.

=FIFA World Rankings *=

=History of football (soccer)=

The history of football begins in ancient civilisations, with similar ball based sports being present, though modern association football as we know it comes from England, where a group of schools of football laid down the first universally excepted rules in 1863. They also agreed to set up the FA the first football association in the world, and football spread throughout the British Isles. Later other countries followed suit. International tours of English football teams around the world helped spread it to all of the continents which had countries that were formerly part of the British Empire.

From ancient games to the late middle ages
Association football was first played in an organised fashion over a century ago. The exact origins of the game are unknown, but with many ball based games being played through history including Harpustum by the Romans (which had developed from the Ancient Greeks Episkyros), Tsu Chu by the ancient Chinese and Kemari by the Japanese. The ancient Chinese game of Tsu Chu is commonly believed to have been in the Tsin Dynasty, (255-260BCE) however there are a number of opinions on the dates involved, some go all the way back to 5000 BCE. The game of Association Football as we know it today is most likely to have originated from the Roman game Harpustum (Latin for Handball), which was imported to Britain when the Romans invaded.

Harpustum was a game which is thought to have been played by the legions as they awaited there return to Italy, is as the translation suggests, far more similar to today’s rugby, than football, yet both games developed from the same root, after the Romans left, by the 16th Century Harpustum had developed into Calcio, with teams of 26 or 27 men apiece, typically one in green and one wearing red. The game was subject of much betting on the sidelines. The rules of the game, discorsa calcio, were formalised around 1580.

Folk football emerges
Britain developed the formalised rules of Association football, which, by and large, still hold sway over the world’s football. Yet before they were adopted in the 19th century the game had a reputation hooligans and fights, where the participants of the average game outnumbered the spectators. Several of these early fixtures attained status as a sort of annual ritual, such as The Shrove Tuesday contest at Ashbourne in Derbyshire, where one half of the town played the other, where the goals are the parish church at one end of the town, and Ashbourne Hall at the other. This fixture continues to be played annually to this day, as the word spread, other Shrove Tuesday fixtures sprang up, including ones at Corfe Castle in Dorset, and Scone in Scotland.

At the Chester Shrove Tuesday fixture, courtesy of the town’s cobblers, a leather ball was introduced to the game. These 'mob football' games began to spread throughout the country, and typically anyone who turned up played, meaning that the number of participants regularly went over 100, and the goals were several miles apart. Few rules prevailed in mob football this coupled with the uncontrollable numbers of players involved meant that the risk of permanent or debilitating injuries was high. The games were often used as an arena to settle old scores. These factors and the unruly behaviour of the participants meant that among others, Kings, clergyman, womenfolk and the Puritans all attempted to ban the game, all were unsuccessful. Men in the English army of 1365 were banned from playing football when it became apparent they would rather play football than fight. This did apparently improve their archery, but failed to eradicate the game.

Football becomes a leisure of the upper classes
Cambridge University added the game to there curriculum at the turn of the 17th century, this showed a changing public opinion towards the game. With the Industrial Revolution sweeping the country, as by the early 19th century, (before the Factory Act of 1850), most working class people in Britain had to work six days a week, often for over twelve hours a day. They had neither the time nor the inclination to engage in sport for recreation and, at the time, many children were part of the labour force. Feast day football on the public highway was at an end.

So the working classes now had little time or energy to play the game, and it spread to the upper classes, as they were free from the work of the lower classes, as a far more leisurely affair. Ad the public schools began to play it, each laid down its own individual rules, often tailored to where they played the game. Notably Rugby School, positively encouraged handling of the ball, where others did not, however they did not permit movement whilst the ball was being handled, but famously William Webb Ellis paid no regard to this rule, and his legendary run gave rise to the game of Rugby football. This form of football separated from association football in 1848, when a committee held at Cambridge University defined the game as permitting handling only for the purposes of controlling the ball, and furthermore, the goals should consist of two posts. These rules became known as The Cambridge Rules.

English public schools
The earliest evidence that games resembling football were being played at English public schools &mdash; mainly attended by boys from the upper, upper-middle and professional classes &mdash; comes from the Vulgaria by William Horman in 1519. Horman had been headmaster at Eton College and Winchester and his Latin textbook includes a translation exercise with the phrase "We wyll playe with a ball full of wynde". The first specific mention of football can be found in a Latin poem by Robert Matthew, a Winchester scholar from 1643 to 1647. He describes how "...we may play quoits, or hand-ball, or bat-and-ball, or football; these games are innocent and lawful...". Nugae Etonenses (1766) by T. Frankland also mentions the "Football Fields" at Eton.

Football had come to be adopted by a number of public schools as a way of encouraging competitiveness and keeping youths fit. Each school drafted their own rules to suit the dimensions of their playing field. The rules varied widely between different schools and were changed over time with each new intake of pupils. Soon, two schools of thought about how football should be played emerged. Some schools favoured a game in which the ball could be carried (as at Rugby, Marlborough and Cheltenham), whilst others preferred a game where kicking and dribbling the ball was promoted (as at Eton, Harrow, Westminster and Charterhouse). The division into these two camps was partly the result of circumstances in which the games were played. At Charterhouse and Westminster the boys were confined to playing their ball game within the cloisters making the rough and tumble of the handling game difficult.

The boom in rail transport in Britain during the 1840s meant that people were able to travel further and with less inconvenience than they ever had before. Inter-school sporting competitions became possible. While local rules for athletics could be easily understood by visiting schools, it was nearly impossible for schools to play each other at football, as each school played by its own rules.

During this period, the Rugby school rules appear to have spread at least as far, perhaps further, than the other schools' games. For example, it is said that the world's first "football club" (that is one which was not part of a school or university), was the Guy's Hospital Football Club, founded in London in 1843. The club is said to have played the Rugby school game. However, some have argued that this club is too poorly documented to be considered to have existed since that time.

In 1845, three boys at Rugby school were tasked with codifying the rules then being used at the school. These were the first set of written rules (or code) for any form of football.

Perhaps surprisingly for a game now associated with the working class, the separation of Association Football from the other codes, happened at some of Britain’s more upper class public schools, where the wealthy sent their boys to be turned into young gentlemen.

The first rules
Cambridge University defined the game as permitting handling only for the purposes of controlling the ball, and furthermore, the goals should consist of two posts, this committee, also defined fouls, they were, tripping, kicking or holding, and an offside rule and an offside rule insisting on three men between the passer and the opposing goal was introduced. With these rules laid down, and the increasing respectability of the game, Sheffield Cricket Club allowed for matches to be played on their pitch at Bramall Lane in the 1850s. And thus, Sheffield F.C. can claim to be Britain's oldest football club, but to this day, the win of the 1904 FA Amateur Cup, remains as the clubs greatest success.

The first universal rules were laid down on the 26 October, 1863, when eleven southern English clubs each sent representatives to Freemason's Tavern in London. Their intent was to lay down an acceptable form of rules which the game could be played by. They came to the following resolution

"That it is advisable that a football association should be formed for the purpose of settling a code of rules for the regulation of the game of football"

And the first "annual general meeting of the Football Association", was set for the last week of September that year. This has continued to be the start of the traditional football season ever since. All the clubs that were at the previous meeting could send two representatives to the meeting, if they paid a one guinea subscription. However, all of those present, could not give there full backing to the movement. The first formal rules were agreed by early December, these led to the resignation of Rugby from the association, not on the issue of handling, but on the issue of 'hacking', or physically kicking opponents. The Rugby Football Union was formed in 1871 for those who still played by the rules which allowed handling and hacking.

The rules agreed on by the FA stipulated a maximum length and breadth for the pitch, the procedure for kicking off, and definition of terms, including goal, throw in, offside. Passing the ball by hand was still permitted provided the ball was caught "fairly or on the first bounce". Despite the specifications of footwear having no "tough nails, iron plates and gutta percha" there were no specific rule on number of players, penalties, foul play or the shape of the ball, captains of the participating teams were expected to agree on these things prior to the match.

The foundations are laid for a competition
The Rules laid down by the FA had an immediate effect, with Sheffield and Nottingham (now Notts County) joining playing an annual fixture on the FA code among others. In 1865 Nottingham Forest was founded, and the first derby game took place. Over the next two years Chesterfield and Stoke joined the code. This finally meant that football was no longer an exclusive sport of public schools. However, it was by no means a working class pass time. By this time teams had settled into 11 players each, and the game was played with round balls.

In 1967 the offside rule was altered, it previously stated that all players in front of the ball were offside, eliminating passing of the ball forwards, much like in rugby today. The rule was relaxed. A Sheffield against London game in 1866 had allowed the FA to observe how the rules were affecting the game, subsequently handling of the ball was also abolished except for one player on each team, the goalkeeper. And a red tape between the two goalposts to indicate the top of the goal. Also a national competition was proposed.

The first FA Cup
On July 20, 1871, C. W. Alcock proposed that "a Challenge Cup should be established in connection with the  [Football]  Association", the idea that gave birth to the competition .The First FA Cup was played in 1872, Wanderers and Royal Engineers met in the final inform of 2,000 paying spectators. Despite Royal engineers being heavy favourites, one of their players sustained a broken collar bone early on and since substations had not yet been introduced, hence engineers played a man down for the rest of the match which they eventually lost 1-0.

The FA Cup was a success and within a few years all of the clubs in England wanted to take part, to do so they had to accept the FA code, this led to the quick spread of a universal set of rules. These rules are the basis of which all association football rules today stem from.

Later competitions saw the 'Gentleman' or Southerners dominate with Old Etonians, Wanderers, Royal Engineers and Oxford University who amongst them took 19 titles. Queens Park withdrew in the semi-finals of the 1873 cup (which due to the format being played that year meant that they were one the final two who play for the right to throw down the gauntlet and play the holders, hence the full name FA Challenge Cup) because they had trouble raising travel expenses to pay for the constant trips to England, this directly led to the formation of the Scottish FA. However despite this, Queens park continued to participate in the FA Cup, reaching the final twice, before the Scottish FA banned Scottish clubs from entering in 1887.

In 1872, Alcock purchased the Football Association Cup for £20, fifteen clubs entered the competition that year. Queen's park reached the semi finals without playing due to withdrawals, but then after a goalless draw with Wanderers, were forced to withdraw as before the advent of penalties and extra time, they could not afford to come back to London for the replay. Wanderers won the cup outright in 1878 after what remains to this day one of only two hat tricks of wins ever. However they returned the cup to the FA in order for the competition to continue, on the condition that not other club could win the cup outright ever again.

The first International
Charles Alcock, who was elected to secretary of the FA at the age of 28, devised the Idea of an international competition, inaugurating an annual England-Scotland. His put advertisements in papers in Glasgow, informing people of an international between the two countries at Kennington Oval, then the home of Surrey Cricket Club. After the appeal, a team of Scottish players was put together and captained by Robert Smith, one of the three brothers who helped found Queens Park FC. His team which lost the match 1-0 was composed entirely of Scots, living in England. Other the next three annual fixtures at Kennington, the best the Scots could manage was a 1-1 draw, the fourth fixture was played at the home of the West of Scotland Cricket Club in Partick. It was a goalless draw, and so one of the most bitterly disputed fixtures in footballing history was born. The first non-european international was contested between the USA and Canada, the canadians winning 1-0.

From amateur to professional football
When football was gaining popularity during the 1870s and 1880s professionalism was banned in England and Scotland. Then in the 1880s, soon after Wanderers disbanded, in the north of England, teams started hiring players known as 'professors of football', who were professionals from Scotland. This was the first time professionalism got into football. The clubs in working class areas, especially in Northern England and Scotland wanted professional football in order to afford playing football besides working. Several clubs were accused of employing professionals. In 1885 the FA legalized professional football, but with a national wage limit. The northern clubs made of lower class paid players started to gain momentum over the amatuer 'Gentleman Southerners'. The first northern club to reach the FA cup final was Blackburn in 1882, where they lost to Old Etonians, they were the last amateur team to win the trophy.

However a maximum wage was place on players, players challenged this and came close to strike action in 1909, but it was not to be for another fifty years before the maximum wage was abolished.

Hakoah Vienna was probably the first non-English club to pay their players during the 1920s. They were also the first non-English club to beat an English club in England when they beat West Ham 5-1 in 1923.

In 1934 the Swedish club Malmö FF was relegated from the top division after it had been discovered that they paid their players, something that was not allowed in Swedish football at the time.

The first league
In 1888, William McGregor a gentleman from Perthshire was the main force between meetings held in London and Manchester involving 12 football clubs, with an eye to a league competition. These 12 clubs would later become the Football Leagues 12 founder members. The meetings were held in London on 22 March 1888, the main concern was that an early exit in the knockout format of the FA cup could leave clubs with no matches for almost a year, not only could they suffer heavy financial losses, but fans didn't often stick around for that long without a game, when others teams were playing. Matters were finalised on the 17 April in Manchester.

McGregor had voted against the name The Football League, as he was concerned that it would be associated with the Irish Land League. But this name still won by a majority vote and was selected. The competition guaranteed fixtures and members for all of its member clubs. The clubs were split equally among North and Midlands teams and Southern teams, who were still strictly amateur.

Football reaches Continental Europe
Football was introduced in the Danish club Kjøbenhavns Boldklub in 1879 which makes the club the first football club on Continental Europe. The Danish Football Association was founded in 1889.

Italian football was played in regional groups from its foundation in 1898 until 1929 when the Serie A was organized into a national league by the Italian Football Federation.

La Liga, Spain's national league, had its first season in 1928, with its participants based off of the previous winners of the Copa del Rey, which began in 1902.

The German national league, the Bundesliga was late in foundation, especially for European countries, given it wasn't founded until 1963. Prior to the formation of the Bundesliga, German football was played at an amateur level in a large number of regional leagues. As many countries previously had done.

At the beginning of the 20th century most European countries had a national football association.

Football reaches South America
The first recorded football match in Argentina was played already in 1867 by English railway workers. The Argentine national leagues were founded in 1931 by the Argentine Football Association, which itself was founded by Englishmen in 1893.

In the 1870s an expatriate named Miller (first name unknown) who worked on the railway construction project in Sao Paulo together with some 3000 other immigrant families from the British Isles in the last decades of the 19th century. Mr. Miller decided to send his young boy Charles William Miller to England for his education. In 1884 Charles aged 10 was sent to Bannisters school in Southampton. Charles was a natural footballer who quickly picked up the arts the game. The football association was being formed at the time. Eton, Rugby, Charterhouse and other colleges all had developed their own rules to the game. As an accomplished winger and striker Charles held school honours that were to gain him entry first into the Southampton Club team and then into the County team of Hampshire.

In 1892 a couple of years before his return to Brazil, Charles was invited to play a game for the Corinthians, a team formed of players invited from public schools and universities.

On his return Charles brought some football equipment and a rules book with him. He then went on to develop the new rules of the game amongst the community in Sao Paulo. In 1888 six years before his return the first sorts club was founded in the City, Sao Paulo Athletic Club. Sao Paulo Athletic Club won the first three years championships. Miller’s skills were far and above his colleagues at this stage. He was given the honour of contributing his name to a move involving a deft flick of the ball with the heel "Chaleiro".

Charles Miller kept a strong bond with English football throughout his life. Teams from Southampton and Corinthians Club came over to Brazil and played against Sao Paulo Athletic Club and other teams in Sao Paulo. One on occasion in 1910 a new local team was about to be formed after a tour of the Corinthians team to Brazil and Charles was asked to suggest a name for the team. He suggested they should call themselves after Corintians.

In 1988 when Sao Paulo Athletic Club celebrated its centenary and the English Corinthians Team came across again to play them at Morumbi Stadium. The end of the tour was against the local professional Corinthians Paulista team with Socrates and Rivelino amongst its players. This game was played at Paecambu Stadium in Sao Paulo and true to Corinthian principles of good clean football the score was 1 to 0 in favour of the locals when as agreed Socrates changed shirts to play alongside the English amateurs. This did not affect the score unfortunately although a largely packed stadium was cheering on for a drawn result.

The Brazilian Football Confederation was founded in 1914, and the current format for the Campeonato Brasileiro was established in 1971.

FIFA World Cup
The first football world cup was played in 1930. Many countries did not enter, with most of them coming from the Americas. By 1950 however, european teams took interest, and the competition blossomed into the worlds biggest footballing event. Brazil have won the championship a record 5 times.

Helpful Notes
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