User:Pickettmk5/Tassili n'Ajjer

Intro
The site was listed as a world heritage site in 1982 due to its geological formations, biological diversity, archaeological importance and prehistoric rock art. Two years later, UNESCO declared the area a Biosphere Reserve through the program "Man and the Biosphere."

Geology
Its surface is now heavily eroded and cut by deep gorges with permanent water pools in the north, and sandstone forests of clustered, rock pillars and about 300 rock arches in the southeast.

Ecology
Within the northern pools are four species of fish, but most large animal species have disappeared. Barbary sheep, gazelle, hyrax, and wild cats are still present. There are a variety of plants, with Saharan cypress (Cupressus dupreziana), known locally as Tarouts, and one of the rarest plants on earth the Tassili Cypress. This species is unique to Tassili and exists only on the Tassili plateau. It is also one of the oldest trees in the world after the Barbed Pine in the USA.

Archaeology
There are numerous rock shelters within the sandstone forests, strewn with Neolithic artifacts including ceramic pots and potsherds, lithic arrowheads, bowls and grinders, beads, and jewelry.

Background
Algerian rock art had been subject to European study since 1863, with surveys conducted by "A. Pomel (1893-1898), Stéphane Gsell (1901-1927), G. B. M. Flamand (1892-1921), Leo Frobenius and Hugo Obermaier (1925), Henri Breuil (1931-1957), L. Joleaud (1918-1938), and Raymond Vaufrey (1935-1955)."

Tassili was already well known by the early 20th century, but Western eyes were fully introduced due to a series of sketches made by French legionnaires, specifically Lieutenant Brenans during the 1930s. He brought with him French archaeologist, Henri Lhote, who would later return during 1956 - 1957, 1959, 1962, and 1970. His expeditions have been heavily critiqued, with his team being accused of faking images, as well as damaging painting the make them brighter for tracing and photography. This resulted in serious damage that reduced the original colors beyond repair.

Current Archaeological Interpretation
The site of Tassili was primarily occupied during the Neolithic period by transhumant pastoralist groups whose lifestyle benefitted both humans and livestock. The local geography, elevation, and natural resources were optimal conditions for dry-season camping of small groups. The wadis within the mountain range functioned as corridors between the rocky highlands and the sandy lowlands. The highlands have archaeological evidence of occupation dating from 5500 to 1500 BCE, while the lowlands have stone tumuli and hearths dating between 6000 to 4000 BCE. The lowland locations appear to have been used as living sites, specifically during the rainy season, and there are multiple rock shelters throughout the area.

The transition to pastoralism following the African Humid period during the early Holocene is reflected in Tassili n'Ajjer's archaeological material record, rock art, and zooarchaeology. Further, the occupation of Tassili is part of a larger movement and climate shift within the Central Sahara. Paleoclimatic and paleoenvironment studies started in the Central Sahara around 14,000 BP, and then proceeded by an arid period that resulted in narrow ecological niches. However, the climate was not consistent and the Sahara was split between the arid lowlands and the humid highlands. Archaeological excavations confirm that human occupation, in the form of hunter-gather groups, occurred between 10,000 and 7,500 BP; following 7,500 BP, humans began to organize into pastoral groups in response to the increasingly unpredictable climate.

The rock art at Tassili is used in conjunction with other sites, including Oualata-Tichitt in Mauritania, to study the development of animal husbandry and trans-Saharan travel in North Africa. Cattle were herded across vast areas as early as 3000 - 2000 BCE, followed by horses (before 1000 BCE) and then the camel in the next millennium. The arrival of camels reflects the increased development of trans-Saharan trade, as camels were primarily used as transport in trade caravans.

Rock Art
With more than 15,000 paintings and engravings throughout the site, as well as extensive archaeological evidence, Tassili has some of the largest examples of African rock art. Scenes of dancing, setting up camp, travelling herds, and wildlife are common themes in the Tassilian rock art. These paintings are some of the earliest Central Saharan paintings, and occur in the largest concentration at Tassili.

Similar to other Saharan sites with rock art, Tassili can be separated into five distinct traditions: Archaic (10,000 to 4,500 BCE), Round Head (7550 to 5050 BCE), Bovidian or Pastoral (4,500 to 4,000 BCE), Horse (from 2,000 BCE and onward), and Camel (early first century CE and onward).

The Archaic period consists primarily of wild animals that lived in the Sahara during the Early Holocene. These works are attributed to hunter-gather peoples, consisting of only etchings. Images are primarily of larger animals, depicted in a naturalistic manner, with the occasional geometric pattern and human figure. Usually the humans and animals are depicted within the context of a hunting scene.

The Round Head Period is associated with specific stylistic choices depicting humanoid forms, and are well separated from the Archaic tradition even though hunter-gatherers were the artists for both. The art consists mainly of paintings, with some of the oldest and largest exposed rock paintings in Africa; one human figure stands over five meters and another at three and a half meters. The unique depiction of floating figures with round, featureless heads and formless bodies appear to be floating on the rock surface, hence the "Round Head" label. The occurrence of these paintings and motifs are concentrated in specific locations on the plateau, implying that these sites were the center for ritual, rites, and ceremonies. Most animals shown are mouflon and antelope, usually in static positions that do not appear to be part of a hunting scene.

The Bovidian/Pastoral period correlates with the arrival of domesticated cattle into the Sahara, and the gradual shift to mobile pastoralism. There is a notable and visual difference between the Pastoral period and the earlier two periods, coinciding with the aridification of the Sahara. There is increased stylistic variation, implying the movement of different cultural groups within the area. Domesticated animals such as cattle, sheep, goat, and dogs are depicted, paralleling the zooarchaeological record of the area. The scenes reference diversified communities of herders, hunters with bows, as well as women and children, and imply a growing stratification of society based on property.

The following Horse traditions corresponds with the complete desertification of the Sahara and requirement of new travel methods. The arrival of horses, horse-drawn chariots, and riders are depicted, often in mid-gallop, and is associated more with hunting than warfare. Inscriptions of Libyan-Berber script, used by ancestral Berber peoples, appear next to the images, however the text is completely indecipherable.

The last period is defined by the appearance of camels, which replaced donkeys and cattle as the main mode of transportation across the Sahara. The arrival of camels coincides with the development of long distance trade routes used by caravans to transport salt, goods, and enslaved people across the Sahara. Men, both mounted and unmounted, with shields, spears, and swords are present. Animals including cows and goats are included, but wild animals were crudely rendered.

Although these periods are successive the timeframes are flexible and are consistently being reconstructed by archaeologists as technology and interpretation develop. The art had been dated by archaeologists who gathered fallen fragments and debris from the rock face.

A notable piece common in academic writing is the "Running Horned Woman," also known as the "Horned Goddess," from the Bovidian period. The image depicts a female figure with horns in midstride; dots adorn her torso and limbs, and she is dressed in fringed armbands, a skirt, leg bands, and anklets. According to Arisika Razak, Tassili's Horned Goddess is an early example of the "African Sacred Feminine." Her femininity, fertility, and connection to nature are emphasized while the Neolithic artist superimposes the figure onto smaller, older figures.