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Ethics of Cloning WIKI
Religious views of cloning are mixed, and tend differentiate between therapeutic cloning and reproductive cloning (the creation of a new form of life). [Cross-Cultural Issues in Bioethics]

Jainism and Hinduism[edit]
Hinduism views on cloning are very diverse. While some Hindu people view therapeutic cloning as necessary to fix childlessness, others believe it is immoral to tamper with nature. The Sanatan Dharm (meaning the eternal set of duties for humans, which is what many people refer to Hinduism as) approves therapeutic cloning but does not approve human cloning. In Hinduism, one view has the creator, or the Brahman not as insecure to lay restrictions on scientific endeavours. Another view restricts human cloning. In Jainism, the birth of Mahavira is depicted as an operation of embryo transfer.

In modern-day India, there have been clones of livestock species. Examples include Garima from the National Dairy Research Institute located in Karnal, where many other clones have been developed in Bovine species.

Buddhism
So long as no harm is caused, cloning is not in direct conflict with any of Buddhism's core values.

Therapeutic cloning:

In Mahayana Buddhism, which is centrally concerned with helping others, there may be an obligation to pursue therapeutic cloning as it has the capacity to alleviate suffering. [Buddhist Ethical Debates on Human Cloning]

Some Buddhists reject therapeutic cloning as it involves ending an embryo's life without any direct benefit, in conflict with the precept of abstaining from killing or causing harm. [Buddhist Ethical Debates on Human Cloning]

Reproductive cloning:

Cloning which satisfies a couple's parental desires may alleviate pain and suffering without causing harm.

Judaism[edit]
Jewish view on cloning is unclear, but some orthodox rabbis allows cloning as a method of reproduction if no other method is available. Also Jewish religion treats all life equally even if it was formed by cloning. Liberal Jewish groups oppose the cloning of humans.

Christianity[edit]
Main article: Christian views on cloning

Most of the Christian churches, including World council of Churches and United Methodist Church, oppose the research of cloning of either human embryos or whole human. The Roman Catholic Church, under the papacy of Benedict XVI, condemned the practice of human cloning, in the magisterial instruction Dignitas Personae, stating that it represents a "grave offense to the dignity of that person as well as to the fundamental equality of all people." Many conservative Christian groups have opposed human cloning and the cloning of human embryos, since they believe that life begins at the moment of conception. Other Christian denominations such as the United Church of Christ do not believe a fertilized egg constitutes a living being, but still they oppose the cloning of embryonic cells.

Islam[edit]
According to the fatwa issued by Sheikh Yusuf Al-Qaradawi in the topic of cloning, Islam is opposed to human cloning. According to Islam, cloning of the entire human body is forbidden because of the following reasons:


 * It contradicts the diversity of creation.
 * The relationship between donor and clone can not be determined.
 * Cloning only requires one gender for genetic information which opposes the natural pattern of creating life by the pairing of a male and a female.

Islam allows and recommends cloning of a specific part of human body for purpose of treatment.

Animal cloning is allowed in Islam only if it bring benefits to all people and no harm is caused to the animal used in the cloning process.

Practicing Citations (Module 5.4.1)
This article is relevant to the ‘Skoptsy’, ‘China’, ‘East Africa and Egypt’, and ‘Medical consequences’ sections of the emasculation stub.

This article is relevant to the ‘Gender dysphoria’ and ‘Body integrity identity disorder’ sections of the emasculation stub.

This article by Dr Hossain is relevant to the ‘hijra’ section of the emasculation stub. It challenges the notion that emasculation determines one’s status as a hijra.

This book is relevant to the ‘hijra’ section of the emasculation stub.

This chapter by Hathaway, from her book The Chief Eunuch of the Ottoman Harem, is relevant to the ‘East Africa and Egypt’ section of the emasculation stub.

Skoptsy (Tutorial 5)
The Skoptsy, a Christian Sect from Russia, practiced emasculation as a form of ritual purification.

Adding a Paragraph (Module 6.3.3)
Find a WikiProject: WikiProject Anthropology, WikiProject Sanitation, WikiProject Sexology and sexuality, WikiProject Gender studies

Improve stub's grading: add meaningful content, explain the topic's significance

Write a paragraph for stub and support with at least 1 in text citation.

Medical consequences
There are a range of medical consequences associated with emasculation.

Short term complications include bleeding, infection, extravasation of urine,. Historically, death was also a potential complication, although it was comparatively rare, occurring in an estimated 2% of cases.

Long term complications include incontinence, urethral stricture, urine retention,  urinary tract infection, and bladder stones.

The physiological effects of emasculation include a shortening of the torso, widening of the stomach and hips, increased height ... The age of the recipient at the time of emasculation significantly impacts the severity of these physiological effects.

Answers to Module 7 Questions (Module 7.2)
File:Steckerboard on Enigma Machine.jpg

Caption: Steckerboard or plugboard attachment for the Enigma machine

Is it your own work: No, it was photographed by School of Mathematics - University of Manchester and uploaded to Flickr

File format: JPG

License: CC BY 2.0 - Attribution 2.0 Generic

Category/gallery: Category:Enigma machine, Category:Accessories to Enigma machine

File description: Steckerboard added to the front panel of the Engima machine, increases the number of possible combinations by more than two hundred trillion.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Steckerboard_on_Enigma_Machine.jpg

Emasculation Notes
"This perhaps explains why Liudprand of Cremona, when on embassy to the Byzantine emperor Constantine VII in 949–950, was so satisfied with the gift of four eunuchs known as carzimasians which he had brought for the emperor: these were eunuchs who were manufactured in the west by merchants in Verdun for the Spanish market, and had both testicles and penis removed." (check reference 49) and 71, 186

Liud., Antapod. 6.6.

, esp. 307–14.

Penzer (1965) [142]: In classical times, the clean-cut eunuch (whose penis and testicles have both been removed) were known as castrati, though this term is now used to refer to the castration of boys to produce sopranos to sing in the opera [136]).

Penzer (1965) [143]: Emasculated eunuchs were also referred to as sandali, or clean shaven. Their genitals were removed with a razor, a tube inserted into the urethra and the wound cauterised with hot oil.

"a passage in the A'in-i Akbari lists three categories of eunuchs from Bengal: sandali, bddami, and kdafiri. In the case of the first category, also known as atlasi, the entire genitals were removed" citing Abu'l Fazl: vol. I, pp. 389-390

Eunuchs from the Islamic empires were 'radically castrated' p. 9.

Castration Practices in East Africa and Egypt: "Available evidence strongly suggests that most eunuchs in the service of Muslim kingdoms and empires, going back at least to the Abbasid era, were radically castrated. That is to say, their genitalia, including the penis and testicles, were removed in their entirety. This was true regardless of whether the eunuchs in question came from Africa, Anatolia, the Balkans, or the Caucasus, and regardless of where the operation was performed.92 Radical castration was, moreover, the norm not only for harem eunuchs but for eunuchs employed as companions to the ruler, supervisors of young military recruits, and military commanders, as well. The practice was similar to the traditions of imperial China, and it is conceivable that the Abbasids and regional potentates in the eastern reaches of their empire were influenced by Chinese custom, although there is no clear evidence to that effect." p. 31

Method of emasculation in East Africa and Egypt: African slaves were exported to Egypt where their emasculation was performed. The two methods of emasculation were described by al-Muqaddasi (ca. 945–1000). In one, the penis and scrotum were removed with a single motion of a razor. In the other the penis was removed and, rather than removing the scrotum completely, it was cut open and the testicles taken out of it. p. 32–33. A lead rod was then inserted into urethra to prevent it healing shut.

Medical consequences: the new eunuch would suffer various physical abnormalities, most caused by hormonal changes; i.e., he would be taller, his head smaller in proportion to his torso but with an unusually large face, and long arms or legs. He is more likely to be obese or underweight than of a health weight. Urinary track infections were common. p. 34

See Patterson, Slavery and Social Death, 320, Mitamura, Chinese Eunuchs, 42, and Burckhardt, Travels in Nubia, 278–79.

Pre-puberty: eunuchs castrated prior to puberty did not grow facial hair, their skin wrinkled excessively, their voices did not break. They may also suffer osteoporosis, their bones lacking the pubertal surge of testosterone which strengthens the bones. p. 34