User:PrBeacon/Anti-whaling

Anti-whaling refers to actions taken by those who seek to end whaling in various forms, whether locally or globally in the pursuit of marine conservation. Such activism is often a response to specific conflicts with pro-whaling countries and organizations that practice commercial whaling and/or research whaling, as well as with indegenous groups engaged in subsistence whaling. Some anti-whaling factions have received criticism and legal action for extreme methods including violent direct action. The term anti-whaling may also be used to describe beliefs and activities related to these actions.

History
Anti-whaling activism has a short history compared to other forms of activism and environmental awareness. Early members of environmental organizations began protesting whale hunts around the world in the 20th century. These actions were in direct response to the depletion of whale populations due to massive growth in the whaling industry. In 1946 the International Whaling Commission (IWC) was created by the world's 14 whaling nations in order to "provide for the proper conservation of whale stocks."

Early protection
During subsequent years, the anti-whaling lobby gained ground at the IWC and popular support grew. In 1966 the Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas took the first steps in marine conservation worldwide. This international treaty was designed to specifically counter the overexploitation of sealife including whales. In 1972 the United States passed the Marine Mammal Protection Act as the first article of legislation to call specifically for an ecosystem approach to natural resource management and conservation. The act prohibits the hunting and killing of marine mammals, and enacts a moratorium on the import, export, and sale of any marine mammal, along with any marine mammal part or product within the United States. That same year the United States also enacted the Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act which established the National Marine Sanctuaries program.

Environmental organization Greenpeace formed in the early 1970's as an offshoot of the Sierra Club. In 1975 Greenpeace launched its first anti-whaling campaign by actively confronting whale fleets around the world. Two years later a splinter group of Greenpeace members formed the Sea Shepherd Conservation Society to protect sealife specifically using radical methods of direct action.

Ban on commercial whaling
After growing pressure from member nations, in 1979 the IWC established the Indian Ocean Whale Sanctuary as a practical conservation measure. Three years later in 1982 the IWC adopted a moratorium on commercial whaling, which took effect in 1986 and allowed for scientific research whaling. When Japan resumed whale hunts under the auspices of a research program, some anti-whaling countries and organizations critized the moratorium's loophole for continued commercial whaling.

In 1994 the IWC created the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary in Antarctica to protect whales in their breeding grounds. Two additional sanctuaries were proposed in 1998 by anti-whaling nations but they failed to get enough votes in the IWC.



Modern conflicts
Throughout the past decade, while pro- and anti-whaling nations debated and deliberated at the IWC, private activists have organized a range of protests against commercial whaling. Most notably, Greenpeace and Sea Shepherd continue separate campaigns of direct action against whale hunts conducted by Norway, Iceland and Japan. Both also conduct media campaigns and other public outreach to raise awareness. Each organization criticizes the other for differing activist philosophies and each, in turn, receives criticism from both pro- and anti-whaling countries.

Tensions have grown over the past few years during Sea Shepherd's confrontations with Japanese whaling vessels in the whale sanctuary off the coast of Antarctica. In 2008 the documentary-style TV series Whale Wars began filming these confrontations, bringing some light to both sides of the controversy. The same year, two Greenpeace protesters were arrested in Japan for their investigation of whale meat. "The governments of Australia and New Zealand, which have responsibility for maritime rescue in the area where the whale hunt is usually conducted, have repeatedly urged both sides to tone their responses down."

More recently the Australian government, as an anti-whaling member of the IWC, set a November 2010 deadline to stop Japanese whaling in the Southern Ocean or face an international legal challenge. However, the IWC's ban on commercial whaling is under debate and could be overturned by the end of 2010. In a compromise aimed at ending a deadlock between anti-whaling nations and whaling countries such as Norway, Iceland and Japan, the IWC would permit limited commercial hunting. The IWC proposal drew immediate criticism from environmentalists, who described it as "disaster for whales."

Subsistence hunting


There has been some resistance to subsistence hunting by the Sea Shepherd group. When the Makah people tried to revive their traditional hunt it was disrupted by “chase boats”, Greenpeace took a different position in stating that it is not cultural revival of whaling by groups like the Makah which is the problem. Greenpeace opposes all commercial whaling, claiming that it has never been sustainable. However, they state that they do not oppose subsistence whaling by indigenous peoples, but they do promote whale watching as an alternative.

Organizations
The following organizations have taken part in or supported anti-whaling activities.


 * Greenpeace
 * Sea Shepherd Conservation Society
 * Sierra Club
 * Whalewatch
 * World Wide Fund for Nature

Methods and tactics
Anti-whaling action is a part of both environmental activism and marine conservation. Forms of expression may include but is not limited to protest as demonstration and direct action, outreach through media, and politics.

Protest
Often the most visible expression of anti-whaling activism is through public demonstration of protest: nonviolent action by groups of people, ranging from simple display of public signage and banners to picketing, walking in a march, or meeting (rally) to hear speakers. Actions such as blockades and sit-ins may also be referred to as demonstrations, although these would normally be considered direct action.

Direct action is activity undertaken by individuals, groups, or governments to achieve anti-whaling goals outside of normal social/political channels: nonviolent and violent activities which target persons, groups, or property deemed to be engaged in whaling, commercial or otherwise. Examples of nonviolent direct action include strikes, blockades, workplace occupations, sit-ins, and graffiti. Violent direct actions include sabotage, vandalism, assault and murder. Direct actions are sometimes a form of civil disobedience, but some (such as strikes) do not always violate criminal law.

Outreach
While protest often leads to publicity of anti-whaling activities, there are more direct ways to raise public awareness. Media activism uses media and communication technologies for social movement, and/or tries to change policies relating to media and communication. Websites, newsletters, calls to action, pamphlets, books, speaking tours, rallies and mass mailings are all examples of outreach efforts.

Other more formal ways of affecting change are political campaigning, diplomacy, negotiation and arbitration, and lobbying are methods of influencing decisions made by the government (in groups or individually). This includes all attempts to influence legislators and officials, whether by other legislators, constituents, or organized groups.