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The Wave Theory of Light and its affect on Modern Physics and Astronomy

Ben T. Ito

August 31, 2015

'''This paper will analyze the wave theory of light. Huygens describes the propagation of light using light waves formed by the motion of an Ethereal matter. Huygens' invisible ether particles possess a hardness that produces a springiness used to transmit light energy through the optical ether by the formation of propagating light waves. Fresnel describes diffraction using interfering light-waves formed by the vibration of an elastic fluid yet diffraction forms in a vacuum void of an elastic fluid, composed of matter; consequently, Maxwell introduces an electromagnetic theory of light, based on Faraday's induction experiment, but induction is not luminous. Hertz's spark gap experiment is used to structurally unite light with induction but Hertz's spark gap emits electrons yet induction is not an ionization effect. In Einstein's (1905) special relativity, Einstein alters the dimensions of Maxwell's equations to justify light propagating in vacuum but manipulating the coordinate system of Maxwell's equations does not change the fact that vacuum is void of an optical ether, composed of matter, nor does transforming the coordinate system of Maxwell's equations alter the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous. In addition, Maxwell's equations represent a spherical wave that forms a longitudinal wave that conflicts with Maxwell's transverse waves. Quantum mechanics, quantum electrodynamics, string theory and particle physics support Maxwell's theory by using the gauge transformation but representing Maxwell's equations with a potential does not change the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous, nor can a massless electromagnetic induction field represent structure of an electron, proton, nuclei or subatomic particle that has a mass. In gravitational physics, Webber (1970) experimentally detected gravity waves that have the frequency of sound (1662 Hz) yet the vacuum of celestial space does not transmit sound waves. Wheeler describes electromagnetic gravity waves and Thorne states that the electromagnetic gravity waves propagate at the velocity of light. The gravity interferometer, of the European pulsar timing array (EPTA), detected a gravity wave with the frequency of 10-8 Hz which forms a wavelength of λ = 1016 meters! The experimental detection of celestial gravity waves with these incredible physical characteristics is the result of the deception and manipulation that is the foundation of the wave theory of light.'''

§ 1. Introduction

The ancient Greeks believed the eye sent out feelers that emanated from the eye and felt the object being observed. All of the ancient Greek writings, including that which involved democracy and law, were translated from Arabic since the Roman conquerors attempted to destroyed everything that the Greeks wrote. In the 7th century AD Middle East, Iraqi scholars studying the ancient Greek writings resulted in the advent of the light ray theory that was a monumental achievement, in the history of light. al-Kindī (b. 801 AD) introduced the theory of vision, where light rays, interacting with the eye, formed vision. al-Haytham (b. 965) enhanced al-Kindi's light ray theory, by dissecting the eye and analyzing the anatomy of the eye, resulting in the invention of the two lens celestial magnifier that Sirian scholar al-Shatir (b. 1304) used to form the theory that planets revolved around the sun. Copernicus (1474) used al-Shatir's diagrams and calculations to describe planets revolving around the sun. Galileo (b. 1564) used the Arabian two lens magnifier in the design of the astronomic telescope. In 1610, Galileo discovered the rings of Saturn, and supported al-Shatir's theory which, at the time, was highly controversial; consequently, Galileo was punished with a life sentence, of home incarceration, for his outspoken support of al-Shatir's theory. Leibniz (b. 1646) studied the area problem of a planetary orbital ellipse, and discovered the mathematical derivative used in the discovery of the surface integration. Newton's (b. 1642) equations of motion are based on Leibniz's derivative.

Huygens (1690) describes the propagation, and transmission-reflection effects of light, using light waves formed by the motion of an Ethereal matter where the particles of the ether possess a hardness that produces a springiness used to form light waves which propagates through the optical ether, composed of matter (solid, liquid or gas). Fresnel (1819) describes diffraction using interfering light-waves produced by the vibration of an elastic fluid where the light waves interfere, at the diffraction screen, forming the intensity of the diffraction pattern. Maxwell (1864) depicts polarization using transverse light waves, formed by the motion, of an elastic medium yet the propagation, diffraction and polarization effects of light form in vacuum, that is void of an optical ether, composed of matter. Michelson (1881) tests for the existence of Fresnel's optical ether, composed of matter, but the result was negative. Lorentz (1899) reverses the negative result of Michelson's experiment to justify the existence of Fresnel's optical ether but light propagating in vacuum is definitive and irreversible experimental proof Fresnel's optical ether does not physically exist. In addition, Lorentz's transformation uses the constant magnitude of the earth yearly motion's tangential velocity vector px to reverse Michelson's experiment to justify the existence of Fresnel's ether but, from the surface of the earth, as time increases, px is not constant. The same method of deception, using the earth's daily and yearly motions, that ancient scientists used to justify the earth as the center of the universe is being used by Lorentz. In Einstein's (1905) special relativity, Einstein alters the dimensions of Maxwell's equations to justify light propagating in vacuum but altering the coordinate system of Maxwell's equations does not change the fact that Maxwell's light waves are formed by the motion of an elastic medium, composed of matter, that does not exist in vacuum; consequently, in 1910, Einstein describes an electromagnetic ether that forms light waves in vacuum but in Einstein's paper, "Relativity: Special and General Theory" (1917), Einstein reverse the negative result of Michelson-Morley experiment, using Lorentz's transformation, to justify the existence of Fresnel's optical ether, composed of matter!

"More artificial theories have been tried out, assuming that the real truth lies somewhere between these two limiting cases: that the ether is only partially carried by the moving bodies. But they all failed! Every attempt to explain the electromagnetic phenomena in moving CS with the help of the motion of the ether, motion through the ether, or both these motions, proved unsuccessful. Thus arose one of the most dramatic situations in the history of science. All assumptions concerning ether led nowhere! The experimental verdict was always negative. Looking back over the development of physics we see that the ether, soon after its birth, became the "enfant terrible" of the family of physical substances. First, the construction of a simple mechanical picture of the ether proved to be impossible and was discarded. This caused, to a great extent, the breakdown of the mechanical point of view. Second, we had to give up hope that through the presence of the ether-sea one CS would be distinguished and lead to the recognition of absolute, and not only relative, motion. This would have been the only way, besides carrying the waves, in which ether could mark and justify its existence. All our attempts to make ether real failed. It revealed neither its mechanical construction nor absolute motion. Nothing remained of all the properties of the ether except that for which it was invented, i.e., its ability to transmit electromagnetic waves. Our attempts to discover the properties of the ether led to difficulties and contradictions. After such bad experiences, this is the moment to forget the ether completely and to try never to mention its name." (Weaver, p. 145-6).

Maxwell's (1864) electromagnetic theory of light, based on Faraday's induction experiment, was introduced since induction forms in vacuum but induction is not luminous; consequently, Poynting (1884) supports Maxwell's theory by deriving an electromagnetic energy equation of light but Poynting's current wire is not emitting light. Hertz's (1887) supports Maxwell by structurally uniting light with induction, using a spark gap experiment, that emits light and the radio induction effect, but Hertz's spark gap emits electrons yet Faraday's induction experiment is not an ionization effect which contradicts Maxwell's theory. Furthermore, in 1902, Lenard proves light is composed of particles that energy is dependent on only the frequency which contradicts Fresnel's diffraction mechanism that light-waves' amplitudes form the intensity (energy) of the diffraction pattern. Also, Lenard's light particles conflict with the continuity of Maxwell's electromagnetic field. Planck (1901) seeks to structurally unify light with induction and quantizes Maxwell's electromagnetic field, using the blackbody radiation effect, that emits light and the radio induction effect, by deriving the energy element that represents both the blackbody light and radio induction effect emissions but the blackbody radiation effect emits electrons yet induction is not an ionization effect which contradict Maxwell's theory and, therefore, Planck's unification and quantization of Maxwell's electromagnetic field. In Einstein's (1905) special relativity, Einstein alters the dimensions of Maxwell's equations to justify Maxwell's theory but manipulating the coordinate system of Maxwell's equations does not change the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous. Furthermore, Einstein uses the inertial mass of a photon to justify light wave formed by a massless electromagnetic ether but Maxwell's electromagnetic theory is based on Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous. The aberration effect of light is used to justify the massless electromagnetic field forming light waves but the aberration of light only represents a deflection of light in one direction which conflicts with the two opposing directions of oscillations, at near simultaneous intervals required in forming a light wave. The analysis of the wave theory of light begins with Huygens' principle.

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§ 2. Huygens

In Huygens' paper, "Treatise on Light" (1690), Huygens' describes light using spherical waves based on a sound wave analogy.

"We know that by means of the air, which is an invisible and impalpable body, Sound spreads around the spot where it has been produced, by a movement which is passed on successively from one part of the air to another; and that the spreading of this movement, taking place equally rapidly on all sides, ought to form spherical surfaces ever enlarging and which strike our ears. Now there is no doubt at all that light also comes from the luminous body to our eyes by some movement impressed on the matter which is between the two; since, as we have already seen, it cannot be by the transport of a body which passes from one to the other. If, in addition, light takes time for its passage—which we are now going to examine—it will follow that this movement, impressed on the intervening matter, is successive; and consequently it spreads, as Sound does, by spherical surfaces and waves" (Huygens, p. 5).

"It is true that we are here supposing a strange velocity that would be a hundred thousand times greater than that of Sound. For Sound, according to what I have observed, travels about 180 Toises in the time of one Second, or in about one beat of the pulse. But this supposition ought not to seem to be an impossibility; since it is not a question of the transport of a body with so great a speed, but of a successive movement which is passed on from some bodies to others. I have then made no difficulty, in meditating on these things, in supposing that the emanation of light is accomplished with time, seeing that in this way all its phenomena can be explained, and that in following the contrary opinion everything is incomprehensible. For it has always seemed tome that even Mr. Des Cartes, whose aim has been to treat all the subjects of Physics intelligibly, and who assuredly has succeeded in this better than any one before him, has said nothing that is not full of difficulties, or even inconceivable, in dealing with Light and its properties." (Huygens, p. 7).

"the velocity of Light is more than six hundred thousand times greater than that of Sound. This, however, is quite another thing from being instantaneous, since there is all the difference between a finite thing and an infinite. Now the successive movement of Light being confirmed in this way, it follows, as I have said, that it spreads by spherical waves, like the movement of Sound." (Huygens, p. 10).

Huygens' spherical waves are formed by the motion of an optical ether, composed of matter, yet light propagates in vacuum that is void of matter which contradicts the existence of Huygens' spherical waves. A wave is a mechanical entity that is formed by the motion of a medium, composed of matter (solid, liquid or gas). A force that acts on a medium, composed of matter, produces waves. Air is the medium that forms sound waves which cannot propagate in a vacuum since vacuum is void of air molecules yet Huygens is using a sound wave analogy to represent the propagation of light. One of the most important characteristic of sound is not applicable to light since light propagates in vacuum that is void of matter which is experimental proof Huygens' sound wave analogy is physically invalid.

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Huygens is describing the formation of light waves produced by the motion of an Ethereal matter.

"Now if one examines what this matter may be in which the movement coming from the luminous body is propagated, which I call Ethereal matter" (Huygens, p. 11).

"But the extreme velocity of Light, and other properties which it has, cannot admit of such a propagation of motion, and I am about to show here the way in which I conceive it must occur. For this, it is needful to explain the property which hard bodies must possess to transmit movement from one to another." (Huygens, p. 13).

"But it is still certain that this progression of motion is not instantaneous, but successive, and therefore must take time. For if the movement, or the disposition to movement, if you will have it so, did not pass successively through all these spheres, they would all acquire the movement at the same time, and hence would all advance together; which does not happen. For the last one leaves the whole row and acquires the speed of the one which was pushed. Moreover there are experiments which demonstrate that all the bodies which we reckon of the hardest kind, such as quenched steel, glass, and agate, act as springs and bend somehow, not only when extended as rods but also when they are in the form of spheres or of other shapes." (Huygens, p. 13).

"Now in applying this kind of movement to that which produces Light there is nothing to hinder us from estimating the particles of the ether to be of a substance as nearly approaching to perfect hardness and possessing a springiness as prompt as we choose. It is not necessary to examine here the causes of this hardness, or of that springiness, the consideration of which would lead us too far from our subject. I will say, however, in passing that we may conceive that the particles of the ether" (Huygens, p. 14).

"But though we shall ignore the true cause of springiness we still see that there are many bodies which possess this property; and thus there is nothing strange in supposing that it exists also in little invisible bodies like the particles of the Ether. Also if one wishes to seek for any other way in which the movement of Light is successively communicated, one will find none which agrees better, with uniform progression, as seems to be necessary, than the property of springiness; because if this movement should grow slower in proportion as it is shared over a greater quantity of matter, in moving away from the source of the light, it could not conserve this great velocity over great distances. But by supposing springiness in the ethereal matter, its particles will have the property of equally rapid restitution whether they are pushed strongly or feebly; and thus the propagation of Light will always go on with an equal velocity." (Huygens, p. 15).

Huygens describes the Ethereal matter with ether spheres that hardness produces a springiness which transfers light energy through the optical ether, forming light waves yet light propagates through a glass vacuum tube that is void of matter which is experimental proof the propagation of light does not involve an optical ether, composed of matter.

Huygens states optical ether, composed of matter, penetrates glass and exists in vacuum.

"This may be proved by shutting up a sounding body in a glass vessel from which the air is withdrawn by the machine which Mr. Boyle has given us, and with which he has performed so many beautiful experiments. But in doing this of which I speak, care must be taken to place the sounding body on cotton or on feathers, in such a way that it cannot communicate its tremors either to the glass vessel which encloses it, or to the machine; a precaution which has hitherto been neglected. For then after having exhausted all the air one hears no Sound from the metal, though it is struck. One sees here not only that our air, which does not penetrate through glass, is the matter by which Sound spreads; but also that it is not the same air but another kind of matter in which Light spreads; since if the air is removed from the vessel the Light does not cease to traverse it as before. And this last point is demonstrated even more clearly by the celebrated experiment of Torricelli, in which the tube of glass from which the quicksilver has withdrawn itself, remaining void of air, transmits Light just the same as when air is in it. For this proves that a matter different from air exists in this tube, and that this matter must have penetrated the glass or the quicksilver, either one or the other, though they are both impenetrable to the air. And when, in the same experiment, one makes the vacuum after putting a little water above the quicksilver, one concludes equally that the said matter passes through glass or water, or through both." (Huygens, p. 11 & 12).

Huygens' optical ether, composed of matter, propagating through glass would produces a hole, in the glass, or shatter the glass which would eliminate the vacuum. Vacuum is void of matter. Light propagating through a glass vacuum tube proves the propagation of light does not involve light an optical ether, composed of matter or light waves.

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Huygens represents the propagation of light with partial waves (fig 1).

"There is the further consideration in the emanation of these waves, that each particle of matter in which a wave spreads, ought not to communicate its motion only to the next particle which is in the straight line drawn from the luminous point, but that it also imparts some of it necessarily to all the others which touch it and which oppose themselves to its movement. So it arises that around each particle there is made a wave of which that particle is the centre. Thus if DCF is a wave emanating from the luminous point A, which is its centre, the particle B, one of those comprised within the sphere DCF, will have made its particular or partial wave KCL, which will touch the wave DCF at C at the same moment that the principal wave emanating from the point A has arrived at DCF; and it is clear that it will be only the region C of the wave KCL which will touch the wave DCF, to wit, that which is in the straight line drawn through AB. Similarly the other particles of the sphere DCF, such as bb, dd, etc., will each make its own wave. But each of these waves can be infinitely feeble only as compared with the wave DCF, to the composition of which all the others contribute by the part of their surface which is most distant from the centre A." (Huygens, p. 19).

Huygens' partial waves KCL originate from points b along the wave HI. The far points C of the partial waves KCL, are used to construct the wave DCF which represents Huygens' wave propagation mechanism of light. The sun, a light bulb or candle flame are physical light source that emit light energy. Huygens' wave HI is arbitrary creating energy (partial waves), away from the light source, which violates energy conservation. In addition, only the far points C of the partial waves, are used to construct the wave DCF, the partial waves' structures between K and C, and between C and L are destroyed, after the wave DCF is constructed which violates energy conservation.

Huygens describes the transmission and reflection effects of light (fig 2 & 3) using spherical waves generated by the transmission and reflection surface.

"If one considers further the other pieces H of the wave AC, it appears that they will not only have reached the surface AB by straight lines HK parallel to CB, but that in addition they will have generated in the transparent air, from the centres K, K, K, particular spherical waves, represented here by circumferences the semi-diameters of which are equal to KM, that is to say to the continuations of HK as far as the line BG parallel to AC." (Huygens, p. 24).

Huygens' spherical waves originate from points K along the transmission and reflection surface AB. The far points of the spherical waves are used to construct the transmission and reflection waves NB. The generation of spherical waves, by the transmission and reflection surface, represents the arbitrary creation of energy, away from the physical source, which violates energy conservation. In addition, the spherical waves, used to construct the transmission and reflection waves, have varying circumferences which would form an inconsistent amplitudes along the transmission and reflection wave fronts which conflicts with Huygens' propagation mechanism (fig 1).

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§ 3. Fresnel

In Fresnel's paper, "Memorie su la Diffraction de la Lumiere" (1819), Fresnel describes light waves formed by the vibration of the elastic fluid (ether), based on Huygens' principle.

"21. If we call λ the length of a light-wave, that is to say, the distance between two points in the ether where vibrations of the same kind are occurring at the same time" (Fresnel, § 21).

"Admitting that light consists in vibrations of the ether similar to sound-waves, we can easily account for the inflection of rays of light at sensible distances from the diffraction body." (Fresnel, § 33).

"APPLICATIONS OF HUYGENS'S PRINCIPLE TO THE PHENOMENA OF DIFFRACTION

43. Having determined the resultant of any number of trains of light-waves. I shall now show how by the aid of these interference formulae and by the principle of Huygens alone it is possible to explain, and even to compute, all the phenomena of diffraction. This principle, which I consider as a rigorous deduction from the basal hypothesis, may be expressed thus: The vibrations at each point in the wave-front may be considered as the sum of the elementary motions which at any one instant are sent to that point from all parts of this same wave in any one of its pervious* positions, each of these parts acting independently the one of the other. It follows from the principle of the superposition of small motions that the vibrations produced at any point in an elastic fluid" (Fresnel, § 43).

Fresnel's diffraction mechanism of light is based on light-waves formed by the vibration of an elastic fluid (optical ether) yet diffraction forms in vacuum that is void of an elastic fluid, composed of matter (fluid). A wave is a mechanical entity that requires a medium, composed of matter, yet light propagates in vacuum that is void of matter which proves Fresnel's diffraction mechanism based on propagating light waves is physically invalid.

Fresnel describes diffraction using interfering light waves that resultant amplitudes are used to form the intensity and dark fringes of the diffraction pattern (fig 4).

"In order to compute the total effect, I refer these partial resultants to the wave emitted by the point M on the straight line CP, and to another wave displaced a quarter of a wave-length with reference to the preceding. This is the process already employed (p. 101) in the general solution of the interference problem. We shall consider only a section of the wave made by the plane perpendicular to the edge of the screen, and shall indicate by dz an element, nn', of the primary wave, and by z its distance from the point M. These, as I have shown, suffice to determine the position and the relative intensities of the bright and dark bands." (Fresnel, § 53).

Fresnel's wave AMI forms expanding secondary waves, at the diffraction object. The expanding spherical waves propagate to the diffraction screen and interfere, forming the diffraction pattern. The sun, a candle flame or a light bulb are light sources that emit light energy. The formation of expanding secondary waves, from points along the wave AMI, represents the arbitrary generation of energy (expanding spherical waves), away from the light source, which violates energy conservation.

Fresnel derives a diffraction intensity equation by summating the interfereing light waves' amplitudes, at the diffraction screen, using a line integral.

"Hence the intensity of the vibration at P resulting from all these small disturbances is

{ [ ʃ dz cos (π z2 (a + b) / abλ) ]2 + [ ʃ dz sin (π z2 (a + b) / abλ)]2 }1/2 "..................................1

(Fresnel, § 53). Fresnel is using a line integral to summate the interfering light waves' amplitudes, at the diffraction screen, but a line integral (ʃ dz) represents the length of the wave AMI using the interval dz. Fresnel is using the line integral to summate the interfering light waves amplitudes, at the diffraction screen, which is mathematically invalid and proves Fresnel's derivation of the diffraction intensity equation of light is mathematically invalid.

During the diffraction effect, as time increases, the crests and nodes, of the propagating light waves, propagate in the forward direction. At a point P on the diffraction screen, the propagating light waves' amplitudes oscillate, forming a resultant amplitude of zero, which would eliminate the interference effect and proves Fresnel's derivation of the diffraction intensity equation of light (equ 7), based on interfering light waves' amplitudes, is physically invalid. In addition, Fresnel's light waves' amplitudes that form the intensity (energy) of the diffraction pattern represents a light energy that is dependent on the wave amplitude which conflicts with Lenard's photoelectric effect that proves light is composed of particles that energy is dependent on only the frequency (Lenard, Intro). Lenard's photoelectric effect proves Fresnel's diffraction mechanism is physically invalid. Lenard proves the wave theory of light is physically invalid.

A small circular aperture's diffraction pattern (fig 6) is formed by the constructive and destructive interference of the light waves' amplitudes but the destructive interference of Fresnel's light waves' amplitudes would result in a measureable reduction in the total light intensity of the diffraction pattern since the destroyed light waves' amplitudes (intensities) do not contribute to the total light intensity of the diffraction pattern yet, experimentally, more than 10%, of the diffraction pattern is composed of dark areas which would result in at least a 10% reduction of the total light intensity of the diffraction pattern yet the total light intensity, that enters the small circular aperture (dt = 1s), equals the total light intensity that forms the diffraction pattern (dt = 1s) which proves the aperture diffraction effect of light is not formed by wave interference.

§ 4. Maxwell

In Maxwell's paper, "On Physical Lines of Force" (1861), Maxwell describes a varying electric current formed in a dielectric.

"The effect of this action on the dielectric mass is to produce a general displacement of the electricity in a certain direction. This displacement does not amount to a current, because when it has attained a certain value it remains constant, but it is the commencement of a current, and its variations constitute currents in the positive or negative direction, according as the displacement is increasing or diminishing. The amount of the displacement depends on the nature of the body, and on the electromotive force; so that if h is the displacement, R the electromotive force, and E a coefficient depending of the nature of the dielectric,

R = - 4π E2 h,........................2

and if r is the value of the electric current due to displacement,

r = dh/dt"..................................3

(Maxwell, Part III). Maxwell's varying electric current (equ 3) is formed by the displacement of a dielectric.

In Maxwell's paper, "Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field" (1864), Maxwell's describes an electromagnetic theory of light based on Ampere's law.

"ON ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION" (Maxwell, Part II).

"If, therefore, the phenomena described by Faraday in the Ninth Series of his Experimental Researches were the only known facts about electric currents, the laws of Ampere relating to the attraction of conductors carrying currents as well as those of Faraday about the mutual induction of currents, might be deduced by mechanical reasoning." (Maxwell, Part II).

"ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY OF LIGHT" (Maxwell, Part VI).

"We then examine electromagnetic phenomena, seeking for their explanation in the properties of the field which surrounds the electrified or magnetic bodies." (Maxwell, Part VI).899849384938420209-4-2015

Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light is based on Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous; consequently, Poynting (1884) supports Maxwell's theory by deriving an electromagnetic energy equation of light but Poynting's current wire, that forms the electric and magnetic fields of Poynting's energy equation, is not emitting light; consequently, Poynting's energy equation of light cannot be used to justify Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light. Hertz's (1887) attempts to structurally unite light with induction, using a spark gap experiment, that emits light and the radio induction effect, but Hertz's spark gap emits electrons yet Faraday's induction effect is not an ionization effect which is experimental proof light is not an electromagnetic phenomenon. Planck (1901) and Einstein (1905) uses the blackbody radiation effect, that emits light and the radio induction effect (Planck, Part I), (Einstein1, § 4), to structurally unite light with induction, by deriving energy equations that are used to represent the blackbody emissions but the blackbody also emits electrons.

"To receive or detect these oscillations, Hertz used a small loop of wire with the ends not touching. By changing the distance between the spheres, Hertz tuned the generator (or transmitter) until its frequency exactly equaled the natural frequency of the receiving loop. When he did this, he found that a spark jumped across the ends of his receiving loop whenever his transmitting oscillator was operating. With these simple devices, which were the precursors of our modern radio transmitters and radio receivers, Hertz demonstrated that the electromagnetic waves he generated were qualitatively the same as light." (Motz and Weaver, Chapter 15).

"Maxwell's electrodynamics proceeds in the same unusual way already analyzed in studying his electrostatics. Under the influence of hypotheses which remain vague and undefined in his mind, Maxwell sketches a theory which he never completes, he does not even bother to remove contradictions from it; then he starts changing this theory, he imposes on it essential modifications which he does not notify to his reader; the latter tries in vain to fix the fugitive and intangible thought of the author; just when he thinks he has got it, even the parts of the doctrine dealing with the best studied phenomena are seen to vanish. And yet this strange and disconcerting method led Maxwell to the electromagnetic theory of light!" (Duhem, 1902).

Maxwell's electric current is formed within a dielectric of a varying capacitor.

"PART V. — THEORY OF CONDENSERS.

Capacity of a Condenser.

(83) The simplest form of condenser consists of a uniform layer of insulating matter bounded by two conducting surfaces, and its capacity is measured by the quantity of electricity on either surface when the difference of potentials is unity.

Let S be the area of either surface, a the thickness of the dielectric, and k its coefficient of electric elasticity; then on one side of the condenser the potential is Y1 and on the other side Y1 + 1, and within its substance" (Maxwell, Part V).

"(85) When the dielectric of which the condenser is formed is not a perfect insulator, the phenomena of conduction are combined with those of electric displacement. The condenser, when left charged, gradually loses its charge, and in some cases, after being discharged completely, it gradually acquires a new charge of the same sign as the original charge, and this finally disappears. These phenomena have been described by Professor Faraday (Experimental Researches, Series XI.) and by Mr. F. Jenkin (Report of Committee of Board of Trade on Submarine Cables), and may be classed under the name of "Electric Absorption." (Maxwell, Part V).

Maxwell's varying capacitor induction effect is formed by an electric current, formed within a dielectric.

Maxwell's electric current is formed by the displacement of the molecules of the dielectric.

"In a dielectric under the action of electromotive force, we may conceive that the electricity in each molecule is so displaced that one side is rendered positively and the other negatively electrical, but that the electricity remains entirely connected with the molecule, and does not pass from one molecule to another. The effect of this action on the whole dielectric mass is to produce a general displacement of electricity in a certain direction. This displacement does not amount to a current, because when it has attained to a certain value it remains constant, but it is the commencement of a current, and its variations constitute currents in the positive or the negative direction according as the displacement is increasing or decreasing. In the interior of the dielectric there is no indication of electrification, because the electrification of the surface of any molecule is neutralized by the opposite electrification of the surface of the molecules in contact with it; but at the bounding surface of the dielectric, where the electrification is not neutralized, we find the phenomena which indicate positive or negative electrification.

The relation between the electromotive force and the amount of electric displacement it produces depends on the nature of the dielectric, the same electromotive force producing generally a greater electric displacement in solid dielectrics, such as glass or sulphur, than in air." (Maxwell, Part I).

The varying current implies the vary capacitor induction effect is forming the electric current displacement within a dielectric. Maxwell states the motion of the dielectric, such as glass, sulphur or air, forms the electric current yet when the dielectric is replaced with vacuum, the varying capacitor induction effect is produced which is experimental proof the varying capacitor induction effect is not formed by an electric current since the electric current is formed by the motion of the molecules of the dielectric that is composed of matter (solid, liquid or gas).

Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction experiment and Maxwell's electric current.

"Equations of Magnetic Force.

uα' = dH/dy - dG/dz............................................4

uβ' = dF/dz - dH/dx.............................................5

uλ' = dG/dx - dF/dy.............................................6

Equations of Currents...

dλ/dy - dβ/dz = 4πp'............................................7

dα/dz - dλ/dx = 4πq'............................................8

dβ/dx - dα/dy = 4πr'............................................9

We may call these the Equations of Currents." (Maxwell, part III).

Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous. In addition, Maxwell's electric current is formed by the motion of the molecules of a dielectric yet light propagates in vacuum that is void of a dielectric, composed of matter, which proves Maxwell's electric fields do not physically exist; consequently, Maxwell's equations cannot be used to represent the structure, energy or effects of light.

Maxwell states the optical aether, composed of matter, exists within Geissler's glass vacuum tube.

"It may be filled with any kind of matter, or we may endeavour to render it empty of all gross matter, as in the case of Geissler’s tubes and other so called vacua. There is always, however, enough of matter left to receive and transmit the undulations of light and heat, and it is because the transmission of these radiations is not greatly altered when transparent bodies of measurable density are substituted for the so-called vacuum, that we are obliged to admit that the undulations are those of an ethereal substance, and not of the gross matter, the presence of which merely modifies in some way the motion of the ether." (Maxwell, Intro).

Maxwell is stating that the optical ether, composed of matter, exists within a glass vacuum tube but vacuum is void of matter. Light propagating through a glass vacuum tube is experimental proof the propagation of light does not involve an ether or light waves.

Maxwell's states that the electric field is the optical ether that motion forms transverse light waves.

"(100) The equations of the electromagnetic field, deduced from purely experimental evidence, show that transversal vibrations only can be propagated. If we were to go beyond our experimental knowledge and to assign a definite density to a substance which we should call the electric fluid, and select either vitreous or resinous electricity as the representative of that fluid, then we might have normal vibrations propagated with a velocity depending on this density. We have, however, no evidence as to the density of electricity, as we do not even know whether to consider vitreous electricity as a substance or as the absence of a substance.

Hence electromagnetic science leads to exactly the same conclusions as optical science with respect to the direction of the disturbances which can be propagated through the field; both affirm the propagation of transverse vibrations, and both give the same velocity of propagation. On the other hand, both sciences are at a loss when called on to affirm or deny the existence of normal vibrations." (Maxwell, Part VI).

Maxwell's electric current is formed by the motion of the molecules of a dielectric, composed of matter, yet light propagates in vacuum that is void of matter which is experimental proof Maxwell's electric field does not physically exist; consequently, Maxwell's electric field cannot be used to represent the optical ether.

"More artificial theories have been tried out, assuming that the real truth lies somewhere between these two limiting cases: that the ether is only partially carried by the moving bodies. But they all failed! Every attempt to explain the electromagnetic phenomena in moving CS with the help of the motion of the ether, motion through the ether, or both these motions, proved unsuccessful. Thus arose one of the most dramatic situations in the history of science. All assumptions concerning ether led nowhere! The experimental verdict was always negative." (Weaver, p. 145).

Maxwell represents polarization using transverse waves formed by the motion of the elastic medium.

"(91) At the commencement of this paper we made use of the optical hypothesis of an elastic medium through which the vibrations of light are propagated" (Maxwell, part VI).

"the disturbance at any point is transverse to the direction of propagation, and such waves may have all the properties of polarized light." (Maxwell, part VI).

Polarized light propagates in vacuum that is void of an elastic medium, composed of matter, which contradicts the existence of Maxwell's transverse light waves that are used to represent polarization. In addition, a transverse wave is a surface wave that cannot form within a volume since a disturbance within a volume represents a spherical wave that forms a longitudinal wave.

Maxwell derives a wave propagation equation of light using Maxwell's equations.

"(93) If we combine the equations of Magnetic Force (B) with those of Electric Currents (C)...........

Absolute Values of the Electromotive and Magnetic Forces called into play in the Propagation of Light.

(108) If the equation of propagation of light is

F = A cos [(2π/λ)(z - Vt)]"...................................................10

(Maxwell, Part VI). The optical ether, composed of matter, produces a motion that forms Maxwell's propagating light waves, represented with equation 10, but the optical ether, composed of matter, does not physically exist (vacuum). Also, Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous; consequently, the propagating equation of light (equ 10), derived using Maxwell's equation, cannot be used to represent the propagation of light. Furthermore, Maxwell's equations represent a spherical wave that forms a longitudinal wave which conflicts with Maxwell's transverse waves.

§ 5. Michelson

In Michelson's paper, "The Relative Motion of the Earth and the Lumiferous Ether" (1881), Michelson tests for Fresnel's optical ether, composed of matter (Fresnel, § 43), (Huygens, p. 14). Fresnel's optical ether is composed of matter since Fresnel refers to Huygens' principle that is based on light wave formed by the of an optical ether, composed of matter, that hardness forms a springiness that transfers the light energy, via light waves, through the ether.

"The undulatory theory of light assumes the existence of a medium called the ether, whose vibrations produce the phenomena of heat and light, and which is supposed to fill all space. According to Fresnel, the ether, which is enclosed in optical media, partakes of the motion of these media, to an extent depending on their indices of refraction. For air, this motion would be but a small fraction of that of the air itself and will be neglected." (Michelson, p. 120).

"Assuming then that the ether is at rest, the earth moving through it, the time required for light to pass from one point to another on the earth's surface, would depend on the direction in which it travels." (Michelson, p. 120).

Michelson-Morley experiment is also testing form Fresnel's optical ether, composed of matter.

'On the undulatory theory, according to Fresnel, first, the ether is supposed to be at rest except in the interior of transparent media, in which secondly, it is supposed to move with a velocity less than the velocity of the medium " (Michelson-Morley, p. 334).

The incident light beam, of Michelson's experiment, is split into two light rays. One light ray propagates parallel to the direction of the ether wind (drift). The second light ray propagates perpendicular to the ether drift. Both light rays propagate towards two separate mirrors then are reflected back and recombined to form an interference pattern. Rotating Michelson's experimental apparatus does not affect the diffraction pattern which represents the negative result of Michelson's experiment but both light rays are propagating towards and away form the mirrors which cancels the test of the ether drift. In Michelson-Morley experiment (1887), multiple reflections are used to conceal the cancelation problem but the total distances both light rays propagate towards and away from the mirrors, in Michelson-Morley experiment, are equal which also cancels the test of the ether drift. Furthermore, Michelson's and Michelson-Morley experiments are unnecessary since light propagating in vacuum is definitive and irreversible experimental proof Fresnel's, optical ether, composed of matter (elastic fluid), does not physically exist.

§ 6. Kirchhoff

In Fresnel's diffraction mechanism, spherical waves form in the aperture and propagate to the diffraction screen forming the interference pattern but Fresnel's spherical waves form retrogressive waves that would produce an diffraction pattern in the backwards direction yet the retrogressive diffraction pattern is not experimentally observed which proves Fresnel's diffraction mechanism of light is physically invalid.

"10-4. Defects of Fresnel's Theory...

3. To these difficulties regarding the nature of the secondary sources there is added the difficulty of explaining the existence of the obliquity factor and, in particular, why the sources do not radiate backwards....In addition, one can easily "forget" the backwave." (Longhurst, p. 188).

The diffraction effect of light described using spherical waves would produce a retrogressive wave that would propagate in the reverse direction but the retrogressive wave is not experimentally observed which is experimental proof Fresnel's diffraction mechanism is physically invalid.

In Kirchhoff's formulation of Huygens' Principle (1883), Kirchhoff eliminates the retrogressive wave, using Green's theorem,

"8.3 Kirchhoff's diffraction theory

8.3.1 The integral theorem of Kirchhoff

The basic idea of the Huygens-Fresnel theory is that the light disturbance at a point P arises from the superposition of secondary waves that proceed from a surface situated between this point and the light wource. This idea was put on a sounder mathematical basis by Kirchhoff†....................If U' is any other function which satisfies the same continuity requirements as U, we have by Green's theorem" (Born and Wolf, p. 417-418).

"∭(ψ2∇2ψ1 - ψ1∇2ψ2)dV = ∬(ψ2[dψ1/dn] - ψ1[dψ2/dn])dS:..............................11

(Longhurst, p. 190). In Green's theorem (equ 11), the volume integralis equated to the surface integral which is physically invalid and proves Kirchhoff's elimination of the retrogressive wave using Green's theorem is physically and mathematically invalid.

Kirchhoff uses equation 29 to derive an obliquity factor that is used to eliminates the retrogressive wave formed by a spherical wave,

"10-7. Application to Spherical Waves

Equation (10-15) was derived for a surface S which enclosed the point P but not the source (since it was assumed in applying Green's theorem that ψ remains finite throughout the volume of integration). It can be shown that the same result follows if S encloses the source but not the point P. Thus in the case of a single point source the closed surface S may be taken as a spherical wavefront." (Longhurst, p. 192).

"1. The integrand includes an obliquity factor 1/2(1 + cos θ) which is unity in the forward direction (θ = 0) and zero in the reverse direction (θ = π). The amplitude factor a/λ is also present as was seen to be necessary." (Longhurst, p. 193).

Kirchhoff is mathematically eliminating the unwanted structure of the retrogressive wave that propagates in the reverse (backwards) direction, using Green's theorem, but a spherical wave has a radial structure that forms a retrogressive wave which proves Kirchhoff's mathematical elimination of the retrogressive wave, using Green's Theorem is invalid.

§ 7. Poynting

In Poynting's paper, "On the Transfer of Energy in the Electromagnetic Field" (1884), Poynting's current wire forms electric and magnetic fields, in free space surrounding the wire.

"Applications of the Law of Transfer of Energy.

(1) A straight wire conveying a current.

In this case very near the wire, and within it, the lines of magnetic force are circles round the axis of the wire. The lines of electric force are along the wire, if we take it as proved that the flow across equal areas of the cross section is the same at all parts of the section. If AB, fig. 1, represents the wire, and the current is from A to B, then a tangent plane to the surface at any point contains the directions of both the electromotive and magnetic intensities (we shall write E.M.I. and M.I. for these respectively in what follows), and energy is therefore flowing in perpendicularly through the surface, that is, along the radius towards the axis." (Poynting, p. 350).

A current is flowing through Poynting's conduction wire that forms an external electric and magnetic fields (E.M.I and M.I) in the free space that surrounds the wire which conflicts with Ampere's law that only represents an external magnetic field. Poynting does not specify the origin of the electric field in figure 6. Poynting's electric field appears to originate from a source outside the boarders of the pictorial figure (fig 6).

Poynting uses the electric and magnetic fields, formed by a current wire, in an energy equation of light.

"(7) The electromagnetic theory of light.

The velocity of plane waves of polarized light on the electromagnetic theory may be deduced fromthe consideration of the flow of energy.......If E the E.M.I and B the M.I within the volume, supposed so small that the energy within is

KE2 / 8π + uB2 / 8π..................................................................12

(Poynting, p. 190). Poynting's energy equation of light uses electric E and magnetic B fields that originate from Poynting's current wire that is not luminous which is experimental proof Poynting's energy equation of light (equ 12) cannot be used to represent the energy of light.

§ 8. Lorentz

In Lorentz's paper "Simplified Theory of Electrical and Optical Phenomena in Moving Systems" (1899), Lorentz represents the optical ether, with Maxwell's equations,

"The ions were supposed to be perfectly permeable to the aether, so that they can move while the aether remains at rest. I applied to the aether the ordinary electromagnetic equations, and to the ions certain other equations which seemed to present themselves rather naturally." (Lorentz, § 1).

"If, now, V be the velocity of light in the aether, the fundamental equations will be" (Lorentz, § 2).

A light wave is a mechanical entity that is formed by the motion of a medium, composed of matter yet light propagates in vacuum that is void of matter which is experimental proof Lorentz's wave theory of light is physically invalid; consequently, Lorentz represent the optical aether, with Maxwell's equations to imply an electromagnetic ether.

Lorentz is representing the optical ether with Maxwell's equations.

"If, now, V be the velocity of light in the aether, the fundamental equations will be

Div E = q.....................................................................13

Div B = 0......................................................................14

dBz /dy - dBy /dz = 4πq(px + vx) + 4π(d/dt - px d/dx) Ex..............................................15

dBx /dz - dBz /dx = 4πpqvy + 4π(d/dt - px d/dx) Ey......................................................16

dBy /dx - dBx /dy = 4πqvz + 4π(d/dt - px d/dx) Ez........................................................17

..............................................................................................................

4πV2(dEz /dy - dEy /dz) = - (d/dt - px d/dx) Bx..............................................................18

4πV2(dEx /dz - dEz /dx) = - (d/dt - px d/dx) By..............................................................19

4πV2(dEy /dx - dEx /dy) = - (d/dt - px d/dx) Bx..............................................................20

...In most applications p would be the velocity of the earth in its yearly motion." (Lorentz, § 3).

Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction experiment that represents massless electromagnetic field and cannot be used to represent Fresnel's optical ether, composed of matter. In addition, Faraday's induction experiment is not luminous; therefore, Maxwell's electromagnetic field cannot be used to represent the optical ether.

Lorentz transforms the dimensions of Michelson's experimental apparatus to reverse the negative result of Michelson's experiment to justify the existence of Fresnel's optical ether (Michelson, p. 211).

"§ 9. Hitherto all quantities of the order p2x /V2 have been neglected. As is well known, these must be taken into account in the discussion of Michelson's experiment, in which two rays of light interfered after having traversed rather long paths, the one parallel to the direction of the earth's motion, and the other perpendicular to it. In order to explain the negative result of this experiment Fitzgerald and myself have supposed that, in consequence of the translation, the dimensions of the solid bodies serving to support the optical apparatus, are altered in a certain ratio." (Lorentz, § 9).

Light propagating in vacuum is definitive and irreversible experimental proof Fresnel's optical ether, composed of matter, does not physically exist. Lorentz is manipulating the yearly earthly motion p to alter the experimental result of Michelson experiment to justify the existence of Fresnel's optical ether, composed of matter. The earth's yearly earth motion p forms a constant velocity but at a point on the surface of the earth, because the earth's daily motion, the earth's yearly motion tangential velocity vector px, that affects Michelson's experiment, is not constant. Example, near sunset, at the surface of the earth, the magnitude of px is equal to zero but at midnight, the magnitude px is equal to p; consequently, as time increases, Lorentz's earth yearly motion's tangential velocity vector px is not constant and varies from zero to over 1000 mph which proves Lorentz's transformation of Michelson's experiment is physically invalid.

§ 9. Lenard

In Lenard's (1902) photoelectric effect experiment, the change in the intensity, of a monochromatic incident light beam, that is past the threshold intensity, does not affect the emitted photoelectrons' maximum kinetic energy (Lenard, Intro). Only the change in the frequency, of the incident beam, affects the emitted photoelectrons' maximum kinetic energy which is experimental proof light is composed of particles that energy is dependent on only the frequency.

"The first investigator to show that the energy of emission of the photoelectron is independent of the intensity of the light was Lenard1, who found that a seventy fold change in the intensity of the light did not alter the maximum energy of emission of the photoelectron by as much as 1 per cent." (Hughes, p. 27).

"The maximum energy of the electrons released at a photoelectric surface is independent of the intensity of the incident light, but increases linearly with the frequency of light.....The basic theory of the photoelectric effect, which conforms to these laws---both of which are based on experiments by Lenard" (Zworykin, p. 8).

"Heisenberg wrote in (1929), that "the existence of the electron" is as unintelligible to the wave mechanical theory as the "existence of the light quantum" to Maxwell's theory." (Miller, p. 18).

Lenard's photoelectric effect proves light is composed of particles which conflicts with the continuity of Maxwell's electromagnetic field; consequently, a water wave analogy is used to justify light particles forming light waves since discrete water molecules, in a small container, produces water waves but a water wave is a transverse surface wave that cannot form in a volume since a volume forms a longitudinal wave.

consequently, Planck and Einstein use a thermodynamic analogy to justify light particles forming interfering light waves since air forms sound waves but sound waves are formed by the transfer of the kinetic energies of the air molecules yet light particles, in a light beam, do not exchange kinetic energies since light propagates at a constant velocity. Lenard's photoelectric effect proves Maxwell's theory is physically invalid.

§ 10. Planck

In Planck's paper, "On the Law of Distribution of Energy in the Normal Spectrum" (1901), Planck is supporting Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light by quantizing Maxwell's electromagnetic field.

"In any case the theory requires a correction, and I shall attempt in the following to accomplish this on the basis of the theory of electromagnetic radiation which I developed." (Planck, Intro).

"In my last article4 I showed that the physical foundations of the electromagnetic radiation theory, including the hypothesis of "natural radiation", withstand the most severe criticism" (Planck, Intro).

Planck is supporting Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light but Maxwell's theory is based on Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous; consequently, Planck seeks to structurally unify light with induction using the blackbody radiation effect, that emits light and the radio induction effect, by deriving the energy element that represents the blackbody emissions but the blackbody radiation effect emits electrons yet induction is not an ionization effect which is experimental proof Planck's unification of Maxwell's electromagnetic field with light is physically invalid.

Planck's blackbody derivation is based on the blackbody surface electrons, oscillating a diathermic medium (optical ether), at the frequency of light, forming EM light waves, that energy is represented with Planck's energy element (hv).

"§ 7. We now want to examine what Wien's displacement law states about the dependence of the entropy S of our resonator on its energy U and its characteristic, particularly in the general case where the resonator is situated in an arbitrary diathermic medium. For this purpose we next generalize Thiesen's form of the law for the radiation in an arbitrary diathermic medium with the velocity of light c. Since we do not have to consider the total radiation, but only the monochromatic radiation, it becomes necessary in order to compare different diathermic media to introduce the frequency v instead of the wavelength λ." (Planck, Part 1, § 7).

"Now according to the well-known Kirchoff-Clausius law, the energy emitted per unit time at the frequency v and temperature T from a black surface in a diathermic medium is inversely proportional to the square of the velocity of propagation c2; hence the energy density U is inversely proportional to c3 and we have:" (Planck, Part 1, § 7).

"the entropy of a resonator vibrating in an arbitrary diathermic medium depends only on the variable U/v, containing besides this only universal constants. This is the simplest form of Wien's displacement law known to me." (Planck, Part 1, § 9).

The blackbody radiation effect forms in vacuum that is void of a diathermic medium, composed of matter, which contradicts Planck's blackbody derivation that photon energy is formed by the motion of a diathermic medium. In addition, Planck's derivation describes the blackbody surface electrons oscillates at the frequency of light which is physically invalid since electrons that have a mass cannot oscillate at the frequency of light, nor a an electron that has a mass propagate at the velocity of light.

Planck's energy element (hv) is derived using Boltzmann's thermodynamic entropy equation,

S = k log R..................................................................................................21

that is used with Planck's blackbody electron (resonator) kinetic energy distribution ratio (Planck, § 3),

R = (N + P)N + P / NN · PP...........................................................................22

to form (Planck, § 5)

SN = k{N + P) log (N + P) - N log N - P log P)............................................23

Using UN = NU and UN = Pe, equation 23 becomes,

S = k{(1 + U/e) log (1 + U/e) - U/e log U/e}.................................................24

Equation 24 is represented as,

S = f(U/e)....................................................................................................25

The second entropy equation is derived using (Planck, § 8),

T = v · f(U/v)......................................................................26

The following equation (Planck, § 9),

1/T = dS/dU..........................................................................27

and equations 26 are used to form,

dS/dU = 1/v · f(U/v)...........................................................28

Integrating equation 28,

S = f(U/v)...............................................................................29

Using equations 25 and 29, a proportionality is formed,

e α v......................................................................................30

Planck's energy element is derived using equation 30.

"§10. If we apply Wien's displacement law in the latter form to equation (6) for the entropy S, we then find that the energy element e must be proportional to the frequency v, thus:

e = hv"....................................................................................31

Planck, § 10). Planck's derivation of the energy element (equ 31) is based on Boltzmann's thermodynamic entropy equation (equ 21) that represents the change of a closed initial volume Vo to a closed final volume V, that contains gas molecules, in a thermodynamic equilibrium. Planck replaces Boltzmann's volume ratio V/Vo with a blackbody surface electron kinetic energy distribution ratio (equ 22) which violates Boltzmann's thermodynamic entropy equation. Also, the blackbody surface electrons occupy a surface yet Boltzmann's thermodynamics entropy equation represents the change of a volume that is incompatible with the blackbody surface electrons.

Planck uses S = f(U/e), (equ 25) and S = f(U/v), (equ 29) to form a proportionality (e α v), that is used in the derivation of Planck's energy element (e = hv) but the complete equation of S = f(U/v), (equ 32) is derived after Planck derives the energy element since the complete equation of S = f(U/v) is derived using the energy element (hv) which proves Planck's derivation, of the energy element, is a deceptive manipulation. Also, the derivation of Planck's energy element, using the proportionality, the blackbody surface electrons kinetic energy (e) is equated with the energy of a massless electromagnetic photon (hv) which is physically invalid.

Planck's entropy equation S = f(U/e), (equ 25) represents the kinetic energy distribution of the blackbody surface electrons. The glowing hot blackbody surface electrons dissipate excessive energy, in the form of the blackbody emissions, to form a constant total kinetic energy distribution of the blackbody surface electrons, but the blackbody emissions represented with S = f(U/v) does not form a constant total energy since, as time increases, the total energy of the blackbody emissions increases yet both S = f(U/e) and S = f(U/v) are used together to derive Planck's energy element which is physically invalid.

..........................................................................................................

Planck's blackbody intensity equation is derived using the energy element (hv) in equation 24,

S = k{(1 + U/hv)log(1 + U/hv) - U/hv log U/hv}.....................................32

Differentiating equation 32 with respect to U using,

1/T = dS/dU.........................................................................................33

forms,

U_\nu(T) = \frac{hv}{e^\frac{h\nu}{k_\mathrm{}T} - 1}.............................................................34

Equation 34 is used to derive Planck's blackbody intensity equation,

u_\nu(T) = \frac{ 2 h \nu^3}{c^2} \frac{1}{e^\frac{h\nu}{k_\mathrm{}T} - 1}.................................................35

that represents the emission of light and the radio induction effect, outside the blackbody, but equation 32, is derived using Boltzmann's thermodynamic entropy equation (equ 21) that represents a closed system which conflicts with the open system of the blackbody radiation effect, that is continuous emitting the blackbody radiation outside the blackbody, as time increases. Using a closed system, of Boltzmann's entropy, to represent the blackbody radiation effect, would result in the blackbody melting or exploding.

§ 11. Einstein's Energy Quanta

In Einstein's photoelectric paper, "On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light" (1905), Einstein is supporting Maxwell's theory.

"By contrast, the electromagnetic state of a region of space is described by continuous functions and, hence, cannot be determined exactly by any finite number of variables. Thus, according to Maxwell's theory, the energy of purely electromagnetic phenomena (such as light) should be represented by a continuous function of space. By contrast, the energy of a material body should be represented by a discrete sum over the atoms and electrons; hence, the energy of a material body cannot be divided into arbitrarily many, arbitrarily small components. However, according to Maxwell's theory (or, indeed, any wave theory), the energy of a light wave emitted from a point source is distributed continuously over an ever larger volume." (Einstein1, Intro).

"These electrons also interact with the free molecules and electrons by conservative potentials when they approach very closely. We denote these electrons, which are bound at points of space, as "resonators", since they absorb and emit electromagnetic waves of a particular period." (Einstein1, § 1).

Maxwell's theory is based on Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous; consequently, Einstein is supporting Maxwell's theory by structurally unifying light with induction by deriving an energy quanta that represents the blackbody light and radio induction effect emissions but the blackbody is emitting electrons yet induction is not an ionization effect which contradicts Maxwell's theory. Einstein use a thermodynamic analogy, Boltzmann entropy, to justify light particles forming interfering light waves since air forms sound waves but sound waves are formed by the transfer of the kinetic energies of the air molecules yet light particles, in a light beam, do not exchange kinetic energies since light propagates at a constant velocity. Furthermore, air, that forms sound waves, produces a longitudinal wave that conflicts the Maxwell's transverse waves. Lenard's photoelectric effect proves Maxwell's theory and Einstein derivation of the energy quanta are physically invalid.

Einstein uses Wien's blackbody intensity equation (Einstein1, § 4),

p = α v3 e-βv/T............................................................................................36

to derive a blackbody entropy equation,

S - So = (E/βv) ln V/Vo..............................................................................37

Einstein uses Boltzmann's thermodynamic entropy equation,

S - So = (R/N) ln W....................................................................................38

Monochromatic radiation of low density behaves---as long as Wien's radiation formula is valid--in a thermodynamic sense, as if it consisted of mutually independent energy quanta of magnitude Rβv/N." (Einstein1, § 6).

Einstein is equating equations 53 and 54 in the derivation of the energy quanta,

E = Rβv/N...................................................................................................39

Einstein derives the energy quanta by equating of equations 37 and 38 that represents the structural equating of gas molecules, that have a mass, with massless light particles, since Einstein energy quanta (equ 39) contains Boltzmann's thermodynamics constants R and N which prove Einstein derivation of the energy quanta is physically invalid.

"Einstein's earliest scientific work dealt with electromagnetism, thermodynamics, and a statistical approach to the entropy function. His 1905 paper "On the Movement of Small particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid Demanded by the Molecular-Kinetic Theory of Heat" provided crucial support for the physical validity of Avogadro's hypothesis and molecular-kinetic theory. The photoelectric-effect paper, "On a Heuristic Point of View about the Creation and Conversion of Light," demonstrated the necessity of incorporating the atomistic (or quantum) idea into the electromagnetic theory of light. Here Einstein demonstrated that the mathematical description for the entropy of black-body radiation in a closed volume is identical to that for a gas in the same volume. By analogy, then, electromagnetic radiation may be treated as a dynamic collection of particles, as is the case for a gas, where the energy of the electromagnetic or light particles is proportional to the frequency of radiation." (Nye, p. 460).

§ 12. Einstein Electrodynamics

In Einstein's paper, "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies" (1905), Einstein states the luminiferous ether is superfluous.

"The introduction of a “luminiferous ether” will prove to be superfluous inasmuch as the view here to be developed will not require an “absolutely stationary space” provided with special properties, nor assign a velocity-vector to a point of the empty space in which electromagnetic processes take place." (Einstein, Intro).

"The introduction of the electromagnetic theory of light brought about a certain modification of the ether hypothesis. At first the physicists did not doubt that the electromagnetic phenomena must be reduced to the modes of motion of this medium. But as they gradually became convinced that none of the mechanical theories of ether provided a particularly impressive picture of electromagnetic phenomena, they got accustomed to considering the electric and magnetic fields as entities whose mechanical interpretation is superfluous. Thus, they have come to view theses fields in the vacuum as special states of the ether" (Einstein, § 1).

"Strictly speaking, such an æther-drift ought also to be assumed relative to the earth, and for a long time the efforts of physicists were devoted to attempts to detect the existence of an æther-drift at the earth's surface....Although the estimated difference between these two times is exceedingly small, Michelson and Morley performed an experiment involving interference in which this difference should have been clearly detectable. But the experiment gave a negative result — a fact very perplexing to physicists. Lorentz and FitzGerald rescued the theory from this difficulty by assuming that the motion of the body relative to the æther produces a contraction of the body in the direction of motion, the amount of contraction being just sufficient to compensate for the difference in time mentioned above." (Einstein, § 16).

"More careful reflection teaches us, however, that the special theory of relativity does not compel us to deny ether. We may assume the existence of an ether; only we must give up ascribing a definite state of motion to it, i.e. we must by abstraction take from it the last mechanical characteristic which Lorentz had still left it. We shall see later that this point of view, the conceivability of which I shall at once endeavour to make more intelligible by a somewhat halting comparison, is justified by the results of the general theory of relativity." (Einstein, Lecture 1920).

Einstein is contradicting himself by stating, in 1905, that the “luminiferous ether” is superfluous yet in 1917 and 1920, justifying the existence of Huygens- Fresnel optical ether, composed of matter. In addition, Huygens' principle and Fresnel's diffraction mechanism are used in modern college physic text books to explain the propagation of light and diffraction effects of light using light waves formed by the motion of an optical ether, composed of matter. Also, in 1910, Einstein describes an optical ether that motion forms light wave in vacuum.

..................................................................................................................

Einstein alters the coordinate system of Maxwell's equations to justify light propagating in vacuum (empty space).

"§ 6. Transformation of the Maxwell-Hertz equations for empty space. On the nature of the electromotive forces that arise upon motion in a magnetic field.

Let the Maxwell-Hertz equations for empty space be valid for the system at rest K, so that we have

dX/dt = dN/dy - dM/dz.................................................40

dY/dt = dL/dz - dN/dx..................................................41

dZ/dt = dM/dx - dL/dy..................................................42

.......................................................................................

dL/dt = dY/dz - dZ/dy...................................................43

dM/dt = dZ/dx - dX/dz..................................................44

dN/dt = dX/dy - dY/dx...................................................45

where (X,Y,Z) denotes the vector of the electric force, and (L,M,N) that of the magnetic force." (Einstein2, § 6).

β = 1/(1 - v2/c2)1/2............................................................46

Applying equation 46 to the coordinate system of Maxwell's equations,

"X' = X............................ L' = L......................................47a,b

Y' = β[Y - (v/c)N]............. M'= β[M + (v/c)Z]....................48a,b

Z' = β[Z + (v/c)M],.............N' = β[N - (v/c)Y]"..................49a,b

(Einstein2, § 6). Altering the coordinates system of Maxwell's equations does not change the fact that vacuum is void of an optical ether, composed of matter, nor does Einstein's transformation change the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous. In addition, Maxwell's equations represent a spherical wave that forms a longitudinal wave that conflicts with Maxwell's transverse waves.

§ 13. Einstein's Inertial Energy

In Einstein's paper, "Does the Inertia of a Body depend upon its Energy Content?" (1905), Einstein describes the inertial mass of an electromagnetic photon.

"There I based myself upon the Maxwell-Hertz equations for empty space along with Maxwell's expression for the electromagnetic energy" (Einstein3, p. 639).

"Let this body simultaneously emit plane waves of light of energy L/2" (Einstein3, p. 640).

"The kinetic energy of the body with respect to (ξ,η,ς) decreases as a result of the emission of light..... If a body releases the energy L in the form of radiation, its mass decreases by L/V2." (Einstein3, p. 641).

Einstein's inertial mass L/V2 that represents the inertial mass of a massless electromagnetic photon. The energy equation E = mc2, derived using Einstein's inertial mass L/V2, cannot be used to justify the existence of Fresnel's optical ether, composed of matter. In addition, Einstein uses the aberration of light (Einstein1, § 7) to justify the formation of an electromagnetic light wave but aberration represents a deflection of light in a single direction yet the formation of a light wave requires two opposing motions, at near simultaneous intervals.

§ 14. Minkowski

In Minkowski's paper, "The Fundamental Equations for Electromagnetic Processes in Moving Bodies" (1908), Minkowski represents the aether with Maxwell's equations.

"§ 2. The Fundamental Equations for Æther.

curl m - dE/dt = pm........................................50

div e = p.........................................................51

curl e + dm/dt = 0...........................................52

div m = 0........................................................53

(Minkowski, Part 1, § 2). Minkowski is representing the aether with Maxwell's equations which are derived using Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous. In addition, Maxwell's massless electromagnetic field cannot be used to represent Fresnel's optical ether that is composed of matter.

§ 15. Einstein's Electromagnetic Ether

In Einstein's paper, "The Principle of Relativity and Its Consequences in Modern Physics" (1910), Einstein describes an electromagnetic ether.

"When it was realized that a profound analogy exists between the elastic vibrations of ponderable matter and the phenomena of interference and diffraction of light, it could not be doubted that light must be considered as a vibratory state of a special kind of matter. Since, moreover, light can propagate in places devoid of ponderable matter, one was forced to assume for the propagation of light a special kind of matter that is different from ponderable matter, and that was given the name "ether." (Einstein4, § 1).

"The introduction of the electromagnetic theory of light brought about a certain modification of the ether hypothesis. At first the physicists did not doubt that the electromagnetic phenomena must be reduced to the modes of motion of this medium. But as they gradually became convinced that none of the mechanical theories of ether provided a particularly impressive picture of electromagnetic phenomena, they got accustomed to considering the electric and magnetic fields as entities whose mechanical interpretation is superfluous. Thus, they have come to view theses fields in the vacuum as special states of the ether" (Einstein4, § 1).

Einstein's EM ether's electromagnetic field originates Maxwell's theory that is based on Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous which is experimental proof Maxwell's electromagnetic field cannot be used to represent the optical ether.

§ 16. General Relativity

In Einstein paper, "The Foundation of the Generalised Theory of Relativity" (1916), Einstein uses Maxwell's equations,

dh/dt + rot e = 0................................................54

div h = 0...........................................................55

.....................................................................................................

rot h - de'/dt = i................................................56

div e' = p..........................................................57

(Einstein5, § 20). Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous and Maxwell's electric current is formed by the motion of the molecules of the dielectric yet light propagates in vacuum that is void of matter which is experimental proof Maxwell's electric field does not physically exist. In addition, the disturbance in a volume forms a spherical wave that produces a longitudinal wave that conflicts with Maxwell's transverse waves.

§ 17. Relativity: Special and General Theory

In Einstein paper, "Relativity: Special and General Theory" (1917), Einstein alters the coordinate system to justify light propagating in vacuum.

"The relations must be so chosen that the law of transmission of light in vacuo is satisfied for one and the same ray of light (and of course for every ray) with respect to K and K'. For the relative orientation in space of the co-ordinate systems indicated in the diagram (Fig. 2), this problem is solved by means of the equations:

x' = (x - vt)/(1 - v2/c2)1/2)...................................................58

y' = y............................................ ................................. 59

z' = z ..............................................................................60

t' = (t - v/c2)/(1 - v2/c2)1/2..................................................61

This system of equations is known as the "Lorentz transformation" (Einstein6, § 11).

Altering the coordinate system does not change the fact that the wave theory of light is base on an optical ether, composed of matter, that does not physically exist (vacuum), and Maxwell's electromagnetic field cannot be used to represent the optical ether, since Maxwell's theory is based on Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous.

Einstein is justifying the existence of Fresnel's optical ether (Michelson-Morley, p. 333), composed of matter, by reversing the negative result of Michelson-Morley experiment.

"On the other hand, all coordinate systems moving relatively were to be regarded as in motion with respect to the æther. To this motion against the æther ("æther-drift") were attributed more complicated laws which were supposed to hold relative to. Strictly speaking, such an æther-drift ought also to be assumed relative to the earth, and for a long time the efforts of physicists were devoted to attempts to detect the existence of an æther-drift at the earth's surface....Although the estimated difference between these two times is exceedingly small, Michelson and Morley performed an experiment involving interference in which this difference should have been clearly detectable. But the experiment gave a negative result — a fact very perplexing to physicists. Lorentz and FitzGerald rescued the theory from this difficulty by assuming that the motion of the body relative to the æther produces a contraction of the body in the direction of motion, the amount of contraction being just sufficient to compensate for the difference in time mentioned above." (Einstein6, § 16).

Einstein is using the reversal of Michelson-Morley experiment to justify the existence of Fresnel's optical ether, composed of matter yet light propagating in vacuum is definitive and irreversible experimental proof Fresnel's optical ether, composed of matter, does not physically exist. Einstein uses the earth yearly motion's tangential velocity vector px to reverse Michelson-Morley experiment but when measured at a point on the surface of the earth, as time increases, px varies. Example, near sunset, at the surface of the earth, px is zero but at midnight, px is equal to p (earth's non-tangantial yearly motion); consequently, as time increases, Lorentz's earth yearly motion's tangential velocity vector px is not constant which proves Lorentz's transformation is physically invalid.

Einstein is using the absorption of EM photon that energy is represented with Eo, by an electron mc2, to justify Maxwell theory.

"XV. General Results of the Theory

IT is clear from our previous considerations that the (special) theory of relativity has grown out of electrodynamics and optics. In these fields it has not appreciably altered the predictions of theory, but it has considerably simplified the theoretical structure, i.e. the derivation of laws, and—what is incomparably more important—it has considerably reduced the number of independent hypotheses forming the basis of theory. The special theory of relativity has rendered the Maxwell-Lorentz theory so plausible, that the latter would have been generally accepted by physicists even if experiment had decided less unequivocally in its favor." (Einstein6, § 15).

"Hence we can say: If a body takes up an amount of energy Eo, then its inertial mass increases by an amount

Eo/c2.......................................................................................................62

the inertial mass of a body is not a constant, but varies according to the change in the energy of the body. The inertial mass of a system of bodies can even be regarded as a measure of its energy. The law of the conservation of the mass of a system becomes identical with the law of the conservation of energy, and is only valid provided that the system neither takes up nor sends out energy. Writing the expression for the energy in the form

mc2 + Eo/ (1 - v2/c2)1/2.................................................................................63

we see that the term mc2, which has hitherto attracted our attention, is nothing else than the energy possessed by the body before it absorbed the energy Eo." (Einstein6, § 15).

Einstein is describing the kinetic energy of an electron with mc2 but an electron, that has a mass, cannot propagate at the velocity of light c.

§ 18. Einstein's Electromagnetic Ether

In a lecture, by Einstein, on May 5th 1920, at the University of Leyden, Einstein describes the optical ether.

"When in the first half of the nineteenth century the far-reaching similarity was revealed which subsists between the properties of light and those of elastic waves in ponderable bodies, the ether hypothesis found fresh support. It appeared beyond question that light must be interpreted as a vibratory process in an elastic, inert medium filling up universal space. It also seemed to be a necessary consequence of the fact that light is capable of polarisation that this medium, the ether, must be of the nature of a solid body, because transverse waves are not possible in a fluid, but only in a solid. Thus the physicists were bound to arrive at the theory of the "quasi-rigid " luminiferous ether, the parts of which can carry out no movements relatively to one another except the small movements of deformation which correspond to light-waves.

This theory — also called the theory of the stationary luminiferous ether — moreover found a strong support in an experiment which is also of fundamental importance in the special theory of relativity, the experiment of Fizeau, from which one was obliged to infer that the luminiferous ether does not take part in the movements of bodies. The phenomenon of aberration also favoured the theory of the quasi-rigid ether.

The development of the theory of electricity along the path opened up by Maxwell and Lorentz gave the development of our ideas concerning the ether quite a peculiar and unexpected turn. For Maxwell himself the ether indeed still had properties which were purely mechanical, although of a much more complicated kind than the mechanical properties of tangible solid bodies. But neither Maxwell nor his followers succeeded in elaborating a mechanical model for the ether which might furnish a satisfactory mechanical interpretation of Maxwell's laws of the electro-magnetic field. The laws were clear and simple, the mechanical interpretations clumsy and contradictory. Almost imperceptibly the theoretical physicists adapted themselves to a situation which, from the standpoint of their mechanical programme, was very depressing. They were particularly influenced by the electro-dynamical investigations of Heinrich Hertz. For whereas they previously had required of a conclusive theory that it should content itself with the fundamental concepts which belong exclusively to mechanics (e.g. densities, velocities, deformations, stresses) they gradually accustomed themselves to admitting electric and magnetic force as fundamental concepts side by side with those of mechanics, without requiring a mechanical interpretation for them. Thus the purely mechanical view of nature was gradually abandoned. But this change led to a fundamental dualism which in the long-run was insupportable. A way of escape was now sought in the reverse direction, by reducing the principles of mechanics to those of electricity, and this especially as confidence in the strict validity of the equations of Newton's mechanics was shaken by the experiments with β-rays and rapid cathode rays.

This dualism still confronts us in unextenuated form in the theory of Hertz, where matter appears not only as the bearer of velocities, kinetic energy, and mechanical pressures, but also as the bearer of electromagnetic fields. Since such fields also occur in vacuo — i.e. in free ether the ether — also appears as bearer of electromagnetic fields. The ether appears indistinguishable in its functions from ordinary matter. Within matter it takes part in the motion of matter and in empty space it has everywhere a velocity; so that the ether has a definitely assigned velocity throughout the whole of space. There is no fundamental difference between Hertz's ether and ponderable matter (which in part subsists in the ether).

The Hertz theory suffered not only from the defect of ascribing to matter and ether, on the one hand mechanical states, and on the other hand electrical states, which do not stand in any conceivable relation to each other; it was also at variance with the result of Fizeau's important experiment on the velocity of the propagation of light in moving fluids, and with other established experimental results.

Such was the state of things when H. A. Lorentz entered upon the scene. He brought theory into harmony with experience by means of a wonderful simplification of theoretical principles. He achieved this, the most important advance in the theory of electricity since Maxwell, by taking from ether its mechanical, and from matter its electromagnetic qualities. As in empty space, so too in the interior of material bodies, the ether, and not matter viewed atomistically, was exclusively the seat of electromagnetic fields. According to Lorentz the elementary particles of matter alone are capable of carrying out movements; their electromagnetic activity is entirely confined to the carrying of electric charges. Thus Lorentz succeeded in reducing all electromagnetic happenings to Maxwell's equations for free space.

As to the mechanical nature of the Lorentzian ether, it may be said of it, in a somewhat playful spirit, that immobility is the only mechanical property of which it has not been deprived by H. A. Lorentz. It may be added that the whole change in the conception of the ether which the special theory of relativity brought about, consisted in taking away from the ether its last mechanical quality, namely, its immobility. How this is to be understood will forthwith be expounded.

The space-time theory and the kinematics of the special theory of relativity were modelled on the Maxwell-Lorentz theory of the electromagnetic field. This theory therefore satisfies the conditions of the special theory of relativity, but when viewed from the latter it acquires a novel aspect. For if K be a system of co-ordinates relatively to which the Lorentzian ether is at rest, the Maxwell-Lorentz equations are valid primarily with reference to K. But by the special theory of relativity the same equations without any change of meaning also hold in relation to any new system of co-ordinates K' which is moving in uniform translation relatively to K. Now comes the anxious question: — Why must I in the theory distinguish the K system above all K' systems, which are physically equivalent to it in all respects, by assuming that the ether is at rest relatively to the K system? For the theoretician such an asymmetry in the theoretical structure, with no corresponding asymmetry in the system of experience, is intolerable. If we assume the ether to be at rest relatively to K, but in motion relatively to K', the physical equivalence of K and K' seems to me from the logical standpoint, not indeed downright incorrect, but nevertheless inacceptable.\

The next position which it was possible to take up in face of this state of things appeared to be the following. The ether does not exist at all. The electromagnetic fields are not states of a medium, and are not bound down to any bearer, but they are independent realities which are not reducible to anything else, exactly like the atoms of ponderable matter. This conception suggests itself the more readily as, according to Lorentz's theory, electromagnetic radiation, like ponderable matter, brings impulse and energy with it, and as, according to the special theory of relativity, both matter and radiation are but special forms of distributed energy, ponderable mass losing its isolation and appearing as a special form of energy.

More careful reflection teaches us, however, that the special theory of relativity does not compel us to deny ether. We may assume the existence of an ether; only we must give up ascribing a definite state of motion to it, i.e. we must by abstraction take from it the last mechanical characteristic which Lorentz had still left it. We shall see later that this point of view, the conceivability of which I shall at once endeavour to make more intelligible by a somewhat halting comparison, is justified by the results of the general theory of relativity." (Einstein7, Lecture).

Einstein is justify the existence of Fresnel's optical ether, composed of matter, which contradicts Einstein's (1905) statement that the luminiferious ether is superfluous.

§ 19. Quantum Mechanics

Quantum mechanics is based on Planck's quantization of Maxwell's electromagnetic field. Planck uses the blackbody radiation effect, that emits light and the radio induction effect, to structurally unite light with induction by derive an energy element that represent the energy of the blackbody emissions but the blackbody is emitting electron yet induction not an ionization effect which is experimental proof Planck's structural unification and quantization of Maxwell's electromagnetic field is physically invalid. In addition, Planck's theory is based on electromagnetic waves formed by the vibration of an diathermic medium (optical ether) but the blackbody radiation effect forms in vacuum that is void of a diathermic medium, composed of matter which contradicts Planck's blackbody mechanism. Davisson–Germer (1927) electron scattering experiment is used to justify wave interference but the destructive interference of an electron matter wave to form the non-electron fringes of Davission-Germer electron scattering pattern, violates energy conservation.

"In the mid-1920's, Davission and Germer, experimental physicists at the Bell telephone company, were studying how a beam of electrons bounces off of a chunk of nickel. The only detail that matters for us is that the nickel crystals in such an experiment act very much like the two slits in the experiment illustrated by the figures of the last section--in fact, it's perfectly OK to think of this experiment as being the same one illustrated there, except that a beam of electrons is used in place of a beam of light. We will adopt this point of view. When Davission and Germer examined electrons making it through the two slits in the barrier by allowing them to hit a phosphorescent screen that recorded the location of impact of each electron by a bright dot---essentially what happens inside a television--they found something remarkable. A pattern very much akin to that of Figure 4.8 emerged. Their experiment therefore showed that electrons exhibit interference phenomena, the telltale sign of waves." (Greene, p. 104).

de Broglie electron matter waves when used to represent an atomic electron (fig 13) cannot be represented in a rectangular, cylindrical or a spherical coordinate system; consequently, the atomic electron matter wave is transformed in a particle-in-a-box (fig 8) with a rectangular coordinate system (x,y,z),

-(h2/2u)∇"Ψ(x,y,z) + V(x,y,z) + V(x,y,z)Ψ(x,y,z) = EΨ(x,y,z)..................64

Schrödinger transforms the particle-in-a-box electron matter wave, of equation 83, into a probability wave, that is represented in spherical coordinate system (r,Θ,φ,),

-(h2/2u)∇"Ψ(r,Θ,φ) + V(r,Θ,φ) + V(r,Θ,φ)Ψ(r,Θ,φ) = EΨ(r,Θ,φ)..................65

"As an alternative, in 1926 German physicist Max Born sharply refined Schrodinger's interpretation of an electron wave, and it is his interpretation--amplified by Bohr and his colleagues--that is still with us today......He asserted that an electron wave must be interpreted from the standpoint of probability." (Greene, p. 105).

"Just a few months after de Broglie's suggestion, Schrodinger took the decisive step toward this end by determining an equation that governs the shape and the evolution of probability waves, or as they came to be known, wave functions." (Greene, p. 107).

"Schrodinger, de Broglie, and Born explained this phenomenon by associating a probability wave to each electron." (Greene, p. 109).

An electron's position probability, is used to form a probability wave, to justify electron wave interference, that is used to construct the atomic orbitals but a position probability cannot form a negative value required in representing destructive wave interference which is proves the quantum mechanics derivation of the atomic orbitals is physically invalid. Also, the atomic electron probability wave is represented in a spherical coordinate system, of Schrodinger's wave equations (equ 65) yet the atomic orbitals are not spheres centered around the origin or a segment of a sphere, that are centered around the origin which proves the derivation of the atomic orbitals, using spherical coordinates system, is mathematically invalid. In quantum mechanics, the spherical coordinate system is misused in the derivation of the atomic orbitals since Schrodinger's electron wave represents a transverse that cannot form within the volume of an atom. An atom cannot be represented with a longitudinal wave since represents a wave structure that is propagating which would eventually propagate outside the boundary of the electron; consequently, Schrodinger is implying that an electron forms a transverse wave but a transverse wave cannot form within a volume. Schrodinger is manipulating the mathematics of a spherical wave in the derivation of the atomic orbitals.

Quantum mechanics uses a gauge transformation of Maxwell's equations.

"A similar, but more subtle and deep, situation arises in electrodynamics where one can express the (physical) electric and magnetic fields in terms of scalar (ɸ(r,t)) and vector (A(r,t)) potentials via

B(r,t) = ∇ x A(r,t)......................................................................................66

E(r,t) = - ∇ɸ(r,t) - d/dtA(r,t).......................................................................67

....Such a change in potentials is called a gauge transformation, and will be seen to play and important role in the quantum mechanical treatment of charged particle interactions." (Robinett, p.447); (Cohen-Tannoudji, p. 315).

The quantum mechanics gauge transformation is based on Maxwell's equations that are derived using Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous nor can a massless electromagnetic field represent the structure an electron, proton, or nuclei that has a mass.

§ 20. Heisenberg

In Heisenberg's paper, "The Self-energy of the Electron" (1930), Heisenberg describes an energy problem, formed by an electron represented with a point source, that radiates an electromagnetic field, in free space, as time increases.

"In classical theory, the field strengths E and H become arbitrarily large in the neighborhood of the point-charge e, so that the integral over the energy density 1/8π (E2 + H2) diverges. To overcome this difficulty, one therefore assumes a finite radius ro for the electron in classical electron theory." (Heisenberg, Intro).

Heisenberg uses a finite electron radius ro to address the energy problem but Heisenberg's electron point source mechanism is radiating an electromagnetic field (energy), in free space, as time increases, which is representing an electron, as a physical source, that is generating its own self-energy which violates energy conservation. Also, a finite volume, in vacuum, contains an infinite number of positions. When an infinite number of positions is represented an electromagnetic field vectors (energy), an infinite energy is formed. The optical ether, composed of matter, limits the number of position forming a finite energy but the optical ether, composed of matter, does not physically exist (vacuum) which proves Maxwell's electron's electric field does not physically exist.

§ 21. Quantum Electrodynamics

Quantum electrodynamics is based on the quantization of Maxwell's theory that is used to represent the structure of an EM photon.

"2.2 Dirac's quantization of the electromagnetic field"(Miller, p. 20).

"Toward future considerations in quantum field theory another noteworthy point about Dirac's paper is his description of photon absorption and emission." (Miller, p. 23).

Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light is based on Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous which is experimental proof light is not an electromagnetic phenomenon.

................................................................

In Feynman's paper, "Mathematical Formulation of the Quantum Theory of Electromagnetic Interacation" (1950), Feynman's quantum electrodynamics is based on Maxwell's theory.

"This separation is especially useful in quantum electrodynamics which represents the interaction of matter with the electromagnetic field. The electromagnetic field is an espacially simple system and its behavior can be analyzed completely." (Feynman, intro).

"The secret to the success of QED lies in the fact that the QED Lagrangian is invariant under a gauge transformation; that is, the equations of motion are unaffected by the following transformation of the photon field: (Cheng, p. 237).

Feynman's quantum electrodynamics uses Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light that is based on Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous. Poynting attempts to structurally unite light with induction but Poynting's current wire is not emitting light. Hertz attempt to structurally unite light with induction but the blackbody radiation effect is emitting electrons yet induction is not an ionization effect which is experimental proof light is not an electromagnetic phenomenon. Feynman's QED photon conflicts with the continuity of Maxwell's electromagnetic field.

....................................................................................................................................................................................

In Feynman's book, "QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter" (1985), Feynman states:

"Nature has got it cooked up so we'll never be able to figure out how She does it: if we put instruments in to find out which way the light goes, we can find out, all right, but the wonderful interference effects disppear." (Feynman, p. 81).

Feynman cannot describe interference of EM wave-particle photons since the formation of the dark fringes of the diffraction pattern (fig 9), represent the destruction of photons (intensity) that would result in a measureable reduction in the total light intensity of the diffraction pattern since QED photons are destroyed in the formation of the dark fringes of the diffraction pattern. The destroyed photons do not contribute to the total light intensity of the diffraction pattern which would result in a measurable reduction in the total light intensity of the diffraction pattern yet experimentally, the total light intensity (dt = 1s), that enters the small aperture, equals the total light intensity of the diffraction pattern (dt = 1s) which proves diffraction is not formed by photon interference.

QED use the gauge transformation of Maxwell's equations.

2.1.3 Local gauge invariance of QED...

The electromagnetic field strengths...do not uniquely define the potential Au(x) by the equation

Fuv(x) = duAv(x) = dvAu(x)...........................................68

The gauge transformation

A'u(x) = Au(x) + duθ(x)...........................................69

leads to the same field strength tensor Fuv(x)." (Becher, p, 62). The gauge transformation is based on Maxwell's equations that are derived using Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous. Poynting attempts to structurally unite light with induction but Poynting's current wire is not emitting light. Hertz attempt to structurally unite light with induction but the blackbody radiation effect is emitting electrons yet induction is not an ionization effect which is experimental proof light is not an electromagnetic phenomenon. Planck uses the blackbody radiation effect to structurally unite light with induction but the blackbody is also emitting electrons.

§ 22. String Theory

String theory is an electromagnetic theory.

"The electromagnetic fields are, in fact, themselves associated with particles called photons. These photons, again, are a different mode of oscillation of the string, in just the same way that the electron is some mode of oscillation of the string. So what we think of as electric charge is really a coupling together of different pieces of string which are oscillating in slightly different ways, and the photon is neither more elementary nor less elementary than the electron." by John Ellis (Davies, p. 154 - 156).

"The theoretical status of the four fundamental interactions was very uneven in the mid-Sixties: only the electromagnetic interaction could afford an (almost1) entirely satisfactory description (hence a 3-star status) according to quantum electrodynamics (QED), the quantum-relativistic extension of Maxwell's theory." by Gabriele Veneziano (Cappelli, p. 17).

"In four-dimensional spacetime, Maxwell theory gives rise to D - 2 = 2 single-photon states for any fixed spatial momentum. This is indeed familiar to you, at least classically. An electromagnetic plane wave which propagates in a fixed direction and has some fixed wavelength (i.e., fixed momentum), can be written as a superposition of two plane waves that represent independent polarization states." (Zwiebach, p. 180).

"The captivating thing about the early string theories was that although they had this apparent problem in fact they avoid it in a way that is avoided in Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism. But they avoid it in an infinitely more subtle way, because the problem is infinitely bigger. The fact that it can be avoided at all is remarkable." (Davies, p. 110).

String theory is based on Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light uses Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous. Also, interference, using the destructive interference of wave-particle string photons, to form the dark fringes of the diffraction pattern represents photons (energy) that are being destroyed which violates energy conservation.

String theory uses the gauge transformation of Maxwell's equations.

"We can write the gauge transformations more explicitly in component form. Using (3.19) and (3.12), we find

Φ --> Φ' - 1/c (dε/dt)...........................70

A --> A + ∇ε.......................................71

The gauge transformation of a gradient to a vector does not change its curl, so B = ∇ x A is unchanged. The scalar potential Φ also changes under gauge transformations. This is necessary to keep E unchanged." (Zwiebach, 43).

Representing Maxwell's equations with a potential does not change the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction effect that is not luminous, nor is induction an ionization effect. Poynting attempts to structurally unite light with induction but Poynting's current wire is not emitting light. Hertz attempt to structurally unite light with induction but the blackbody radiation effect is emitting electrons yet induction is not an ionization effect which is experimental proof light is not an electromagnetic phenomenon. Planck uses the blackbody radiation effect to structurally unite light with induction but the blackbody is also emitting electrons.

§ 23. Particle Physics

Particle physics is based on Maxwell's electromagnetic theory.

"Each of these particles, called a fermion, spins and exists in two spin (or polarization) states called left-handed (i.e. appears to be spinning clockwise as viewed by and observer that it is approaching) and right-handed (i.e. spinning anti-clockwise) spin states. One may add a fifth particle, the photon to this list. The photon is a quantum of electromagnetic field. It is a boson and carries spin 1, is electrically neutral and has zero mass" (Fayyazuddin, p. 1)

Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction effect that is not optical which conflicts with the boson (photon) that electromagnetic structure is represented with the gauge transformation of Maxwell's equations. Also, the subatomic particles are experimentally detected using track formed in a bubble chamber that contains liquid hydrogen. The initial accelerated electron beam is incident to a metallic target that interaction produces subatomic particles that propagate through the steel enclosure (more than an inch of steel) of the bubble chamber to form the bubble tracks in the hydrogen liquid, that are used to justify the existence of subatomic particles but subatomic particles, that have a mass cannot propagate through the steel container of a bubble chamber without producing a hole in the steel enclosure of the bubble chamber since the penetration of matter through the steel enclosure of the bubble chamber would created a massive explosion of the liquid hydrogen. I predicts that physicists have fraudulently inserted a radioactive isotope within the bubble chamber to create the bubble tracks that are used to justify the existence of the sub-atomic particles.

.....................................................................................

Particle physics is based on the gauge transformation of Maxwell's equations.

"2.3 Electromagnetic Field" (Leon, p. 29).

E = - (dA/dt) - ∇φ,........................B = ∇ x A".......................72a,b

(Leon, p. 29); (Martin, p. 290), (Roe, p. 71). Maxwell's equations derived using Faraday's induction effect that is not optical. In addition, induction represent a massless effect that cannot be used to represent the structure of a sub-atomic particle that has a mass.

§ 24. Gravitation

In Einstein paper, "The Foundation of the Generalised Theory of Relativity" (1916), Einstein describes gravity with Maxwell's electromagnetic field.

"In the following, we differentiate "gravitation-field" from "matter", in the sense that everything besides the gravitation-field will be signified as matter; therefore, the term includes not only "matter" in the usual sense, but also the electro-dynamic field." (Einstein, § 14).

"On account of (30) the equation (66) becomes equivalent to (57) and (57a) when \varkappa_{\sigma} vanishes. Thus T_{\sigma}^{\nu} are the energy-components of the electro-magnetic field. With the help of (61) and (64) we can easily show that the energy-components of the electro-magnetic field, in the case of the special relativity theory, give rise to the well-known MAXWELL-POYNTING expressions.

We have now deduced the most general laws which the gravitation-field and matter satisfy when we use a co-ordinate system for which \sqrt{-g}=1." (Einstein, § 20, 1916).

Maxwell's theory is based on Faraday's induction experiment that is not a gravitational experiment. In addition, electromagnetic shielding proves gravity is not an electromagnetic phenomenon.

Gravitation physics is based on Maxwell's theory.

"Although in some sense the preceding arguments may be regarded as a derivation of Maxwell's equations, the limitations of this approach should be kept in mind. Clearly, we have had to make quite a few assumptions to reach Eq. [14]. The objective of our game with electrodynamics was to obtain a prescription for finding the field equations in the hope that an analogous prescription will lead us to the filed equation for gravitation." (Ohanian, p. 135).

"§35.11. CONPARISON OF AN EXACT ELECTROMAGNETIC PLANE WAVE WITH THE GRAVITATIONAL PLANE WAVE." (Misner, Thorne, Wheeler, p. 961).

"It represents an electromagnetic plane wave analogous to the gravitational plane wave of the last few sections." (Misner, Thorne, Wheeler, p. 961).

Maxwell's theory is based on Faraday's induction experiment that is not a gravitational experiment. In addition, electromagnetic shielding proves gravity is not an electromagnetic phenomenon.

..........................................................................................................................................

Thorne describes gravity waves that propagates at the velocity of light.

9.2 The physical and mathematical description of a gravitational wave by Thorne. (Hawking, p. 338).

"General relativistic gravitational waves are ripples in the curvature of space time that propagates with the speed of light." by Thorne (Hawking, p. 338).

"Because gravitational and electromagnetic waves should propagate with the same speed, they can interact in a coherent way (Gertsenshtein, 1962)." by Thorne (Hawking, p. 361).

"Gravitational effects cannot propagate with infinite speed. This is obvious both from the lack of Lorentz invariance of infinite speed and from the causality violations that are associated with signal speeds in excess of the speed of light. Since the speed of light is the only Lorentz-invariant speed, we expect that gravitational effects propagate in the form of waves at the speed of light." (Ohanian, p. 241).

A gravity wave propagates at the velocity of light originates from an electromagnetic analogy.

Weber experimentally detected gravity waves that have the frequency of sound (1662 Hz).

"Further advances are necessary in order to generate and detect gravitational waves in the laboratory." (Weber, Conclusion, 1960).

"A description is given of the gravitational radiation experiments involving detectors at opposite ends of a 1000 kilometer baseline, at Argonne National Laboratory and the University of Maryland. Sudden increases in detector output are observed roughly once in several days, coincident within the resolution time of 0.25 seconds. The statistics rule out an accidental origin and experiments rule out seismic and electromagnetic effects. It is reasonable to conclude that gravitational radiation is being observed." (Weber, Abstract, 1970).

"EXPERIMENTS AT 1662 HERTZ" (Weber, Intro, 1970).

Weber's gravity wave experiment is testing for the frequency of sound waves (1662 Hz) but celestial gravity waves that have a frequency of sound cannot propagate in the vacuum of celestial space.

The frequencies of the gravitational wave, using a beam detector, was estimated with a range of 200Hz - 10,000Hz that includes Munich beam 1980, Caltech beam 1983, Glasgow beam 1987 and LIGO gravitational wave beam detectors.

"Because his best wisdom is so insecure, Fig. 9.4 shows wave strengths based not on these specific models, but rather on the general equation (37) for several possible values of ΔEGW and ro, and for the entire range of characteristic frequencies that have shown up in model calculations 200 Hz < fc < 10 000 Hz." by Thorne (Hawking, p. 375).

According to Caltech, celestial gravity waves, that have the frequencies of sound waves (200 Hz - 10,000 Hz), propagate at the velocity of light which is absurb.

...............................................................

Gravity waves are represented with the following frequencies and sources.

"TABLE 5.1 FREQUENCY BANDS FOR GRAVIATIONAL WAVES

Designation.........................................Frequency...............................Typical sources

Extremely low frequency.....................10-7 to 10-4 Hz..........................Slow binaries, black hole (>108 Mo)

Very low frequency..............................10-4 to 10-1 Hz..........................Fast binaries, black holes (<108 Mo), white-dwarf vibrations

Low frequency......................................10-1 to 102 Hz..........................Binary pulsars, black holes (<105 Mo)

Medium frequency................................102 to 105 Hz...........................Supernovas, pulsar vibrations

High frequency......................................105 to 108 Hz...........................Man-made?

Very high frequency..............................108 to 1011 Hz..........................Blackbody, cosmological?" (Ohanian, p. 242).

"The most promising frequency band is that of medium frequency, from 102 to 105 Hz. There are several probable sources of gravitational waves in this band and, fortunately, detectors that respond to waves in this band can be built. There is little doubt that gravitational waves are incident on the Earth; the question is, can we build a detector sufficiently sensitive to feel them?" (Ohanian, p. 242).

Gravity waves that have a frequency range between 10-7 to 104 Hz and propagate at the velocity of light proves gravity waves have never been experimentally detected.

Gravitational physics uses the gauge transformation of Maxwell's equations.

"The gauge transformation [3.49] for huv implies the gauge transformation" (Ohanian, p. 244).

"Associated with an electromagnetic disturbance is a mass, the gravitational attraction of which under appropriate circumstances is capable of holding the disturbance together for a time long in comparison with the characteristic periods of the system. Such gravitational-electromagnetic entities, or "geons"; are analyzed via classical relativity theory." (Wheeler, Abstract).

In electrodynamics, 21 the wave equation describing electromagnetic waves in vacuum is, in the Lorentz gauge....................Similarly, in general relativity, in the weak field limit, the wave equation describing gravitational waves in vacuum is equation (2.10.11)...........A similar analogy is valid for the gravitomagnetic field. 9 In electrodynamics, 21 from the Maxwell equations (2.8.43) and (2.8.44) and in particular from magnetic monopoles, ∇ · B = 0, one can write B = ∇ x A, where A is the vector potential. From Ampere's law for a stationary current distribution: ∇ x B = (4π/c)j, where j is the current density, one has then:" (Ciufolini and Wheeler, p. 317).

"TABLE 21.2 Gauge Transformations in Linearized Gravity and Electromagnetic

A ---> A + ∇Λ....Φ --> Φ - dΛ/dt".......................73

(Hartle, p. 462). The gauge transformation is based on Maxwell's equations that are derived using Faraday's induction effect but electromagnetic shielding proves gravity is not an electromagnetic phenomenon.

§ 25. Astronomy

Modern astronomy uses parallax to determine the distance from a star to the earth. The distance to Alpha Centauri is determined by parallax where the distance from the earth to the sun is used as the reference distance. The angle of Alpha Centauri is measured, at a precise time and location, then exactly six months later the star's position, in archsec, is measured. The difference of the angles, produced by the star, at the different positions, is used to determine the distance from the earth to the star, using trigonometry. The reference distance is the diameter of the earth's orbit around the sun but the distance to the nearest star Alpha Centauri, d1 = 4 x 1015 m and the diameter of the earth's orbit d2 = 2 x 1010 m have  a five order of magnitude difference; consequently, the determination of the distance to Alpha Centauri or any other distance star, using parallax, where the earth's orbit is used, as the reference length, is invalid. Also, the determination of the distances to a star is based on a star's position changing, as time increases, but the celestial universe is stationary since the advent of modern photography, the celestial universe has been photographed. Comparing the celestial universe, at the same location and time, one will find an exact pattern of star matching, which represents a stationary celestial universe. The celestial universe is in motion but the enormous distances to the nearest star, and the relative short advent of photography, produces an affect that represents a stationary universe. Maybe in 1000 years, astronomers will be able to determine the closest star.

The big band theory is justified using spiral galaxies. The expansion of the universe is explained by the spiral galaxies that appear to be expanding which is the foundation of the big bang theory but an explosion forms a three dimensional spherical distribution yet the spiral galaxies that are repetitively used to represent the components of the celestial universe have a two dimensional transverse distribution since the distribution of the stars, that from the spiral galaxies, are concentrated along a surface which allows for the visual representation of the spiral galaxies that is used to justify the big bang theory. Using an analogy, when a balloon is being enlarged, a normal balloon forms a spherical shape balloon but according to the spiral galaxy theory a balloon forms a pancake shape balloon.

There is a limitation to range of a telescope. Using an analogy, physicists cannot see, using a microscope, an atom, electron or nuclei. There I predict that the limitations of a astronomic telescope is within your solar system. Everything else is based on manipulation and deception. Example, astronomer are using an imagine of the Milk Way to describe a spiral galaxy but the Milky Way is represented, in a photograph, with your solar system, as part of the Milk Way, which is pure fiction since the photographer would have to travel many light years, away from the Milk Way, to have taken the picture of the Milky Way that contains our solar system. The photographs of distance galaxies are computer generated images to falsely enhance the abilities of modern astronomer to fraudulently obtain governmental funding, to build large and large, and more expansive telescopes. I predicts that black holes are created by interference or imperfection in the glass surface that the mirrors of the telescope are constructed.

§ 26. Maxwell's Equations

The modern physics derivation of Maxwell's electric curl equation is described using a variation of Faraday's induction experiment where a propagating magnet forms a varying current in a wire loop  (fig 13). The magnetic flux (dB/dt) that is incident normal to the plane formed by a wire loop produces the wire loop emf,

emf = - ʃʃ (dB/dt)· dA...........................................74

A second wire loop emf equation is derived that represent the internal electric field E that forms the wire loop emf,

emf = ʃ E · dl.......................................................75

Equating equations 74 and 75,

ʃ E · dl = - ʃʃ (dB/dt)· dA.......................................76

Using Stokes' theorem (Hecht, p. 649),

ʃ E · dl = - ʃʃ (∇ x E)· dA......................................77

Equating equations 76 and 77,

- ʃʃ(dB/dt)· dA = ʃʃ (∇ x E)· dA.............................78

Maxwell electric curl equation is derived using equation 78,

∇ x E = - dB/dt...................................................79

The derivation of Maxwell's electric curl equation is based on Stokes' theorem that is used to form equation 77 but the left side, of equation 77, represents the total length, of the wire loop, and the right side of equation 77, represents an area, formed by the wire loop, that are not equivalent, which prove the derivation of equation 77 is mathematically and physically invalid. Furthermore, the electric field of equations 75 and 76 only forms within the conduction wire that forms the wire loop emf; consequently, the electric field of Maxwell's electric curl equation cannot be used to represent the electric field structure of light, in free space, away from the wire loop. In addition, Maxwell's electric current is formed by the motion of the molecules of the dielectric yet light propagates in vacuum that is void of a dielectric, composed of matter, which is experiment proof Maxwell's electric field does not physically exist. Also, the magnetic flux (db/dt) of Maxwell's electric curl equation, that forms the wire loop emf, only forms in the plane of the wire loop, and cannot be used to represent the magnetic field structure of light, away from the wire loop. In addition, the derivation of Maxwell's electric curl equation, using equation 78, requires that Maxwell's equations be used in whole since the left and right sides of equations 78 are compared in the derivation of Maxwell's electric curl equation. Also Maxwell's equations represent a spherical wave that forms a longitudinal wave that conflicts with Maxwell's transverse waves.

..................................................................................................................

Maxwell's magnetic curl equation is derived using Ampere's law (Hecht, p. 42),

ʃ B · dl = ui.........................................................80

Maxwell electric current (dE/dt), that forms in the space between a varying capacitor, is added to Ampere's law,

ʃ B · dl = ʃʃ (J + ε dE/dt) · dA ..........................81

Using Stokes' theorem to form on the left side of equation 81 (Hecht, p. 649),

ʃ B · dl = ʃʃ (∇ x B) · dA........................................82

Equating equations 81 and 82, using J = 0,

ʃʃ (ε dE/dt)· dA = ʃʃ (∇ x B) · dA............................83

Maxwell's magnetic curl equation is derived using equation 83,

∇ x B = 1/c (dE/dt)............................................84   08080808080808008080808

The length, of equation 82, is being equated to an area which is physically invalid and proves the derivation of Maxwell's electric curl equation, using equation 82, is void. Also, Hecht's varying capacitor induction effects is not emitting light which is experimental proof Maxwell's magnetic curl equation cannot be used to represent the structure, effect or energy of light. Also, the electric field, of Maxwell's electric current, is formed by the motion of air molecules but the varying capacitor induction effect forms in vacuum that is void of matter which is experimental proof Maxwell's electric field does not physically exist. Furthermore, Maxwell's electric current conflicts with Ampere's law that only describes a magnetic field. Hecht is arbitrarily adding Maxwell's electric current to Ampere's equation which is physically invalid since Ampere's law only represents an external magnetic effect.

Maxwell's electric current is added to Ampere's law to describe the varying capacitor induction effect but Ampere's conduction current represents electrons flowing within a conduction wire which conflicts with Maxwell's electric current that is forms by the motion of air molecules. I predict that the varying capacitor induction effect is formed by a capacitor plate surface current that induces a surface current on the adjacent capacitor plate. Example, when two antenna are place close together (1 meter), a varying surface current of the transmission antenna induces a varying current in the reception antenna; the transmission antenne forms a surface current; consequently, the two antennas act similar to capacitor plates where the capacitor plate surface current forms the varying capacitor induction effect. The varying capacitor induction effect represented with a surface current conflicts with Maxwell's electric current displacement mechanism.

A varying capacitor induction effect, represented with Maxwell's electric current (dE/dt), that is used in the derivation of Maxwell's magnetic curl equation, forms an energy problem. Using a charged capacitor analogy, a charged capacitor is said to form an electric field between the capacitor plates. At a position, infinitesimal closed to the surface of the negative plate an unexplainable large electric field and energy are produced. Also, the electric field energy formed by a charged capacitor is represented with u = cE2 but the electric fields of a charged capacitor are not constant and varies depending on the location, between the capacitor plates. Example, infinitesimal closed to the negative capacitor plate an extremely large electric field if formed. At a point midway between the capacitor plates, the magnitude of the electric field is zero and increases at positions towards the capacitor plate; therefore, a charged capacitor does not form a constant magnitude electric field that is required in the representation of the electric field energy u = cE2 of a charged capacitor. Also, a finite volume, in vacuum, between the capacitor plates, contain an infinite number of positions. When an infinite number of positions is represented with electric field vectors (energy), an infinite energy is formed. The optical ether, composed of matter, limits the number of positions forming a finite energy but the optical ether does not exist which is experimental proof Maxwell's electric fields do not physically exist.

27. Electromagnetic Transverse Wave Equations

The electromagnetic transverse wave equations of light are derived using Maxwell's equations,

∇x E = - dB/dt........∇ x B = 1/c (dE/dt).....................................85a,b

∇ · E = 0.................∇ · B = 0....................................................86a,b

Maxwell's curl equations (equ 85a,b) are expanded to form,

dEz /dy - dEy /dz = - dBx /dt..........................................................87

dEx /dz - dEz /dx = - dBy /dt..........................................................88

dEy /dx - dEx /dy = - dBz /dt.........................................................89

...........................................................

dBz /dy - dBy /dz = 1/c (dEx /dt)....................................................90

dBx /dz - dBz /∂x = 1/c (dEy /dt)....................................................91

dBy /dx - dBx /dy = 1/c (dEz /dt)...................................................92

The z-direction electric transverse wave equations is derived using equations 87 and 91 that are used to form (Jenkins, p. 410),

dEy /dz = 1/c (dBx /dt)..............dBx /dz = 1/c (dEy /dt)...................93a,b

Differentiating equation 93a, with the respect to d/dz, and equation 93b with respect to d/dt produces,

d"Ey /d"z = 1/c (d"Bx /dtdz).........d"Bx /dtdz = 1/c (d"Ey /d"t)...........94a,b

Equating equations 94a,b,

dEy /d"z = 1/c2 (d"Ey /d"t).............................................................95

The z-direction electric transverse wave equation of light is derived using equation 95. The z-directional magnetic transverse wave equation is derived using a similar method,

Ey = Eo cos(kz - wt) ĵ ....................................................................96

Bx = Bo cos(kz -wt) î .....................................................................97

To test the derivation, the z-directional electric and magnetic transverse wave equations of light (equ 96 & 97) are used in equation 93a,

d/dz[Eo cos(kz - wt)] ĵ = - (1/c) d/dt[Bo cos(kz - wt)] î.....................98

Equation 98 forms,

Eo ĵ = Bo î ..........................................................................................99

The derivation of the electromagnetic transverse wave equations of light using Maxwell's equations produces a unit vector catastrophe, of equation 99, since Maxwell's equations represents a spherical wave that forms a longitudinal wave. Also, in the derivation of equations 93a,b, 14 of the 18 differential components of the expansion of Maxwell's equations, are eliminated but the derivation of Maxwell's equations using equations 77 and 82 require that Maxwell's equations be used in whole; therefore, the elimination of the differential components to derive the electromagnetic transverse wave equations is invalid.

Part B

In an alternative gradient method, the electromagnetic transverse wave equations of light are derived using Maxwell's equations,

∇ x E = - dB/dt..............∇ x B = 1/c (dE/dt)...................100a,b

∇ · E = 0........................∇ · B = 0.................................101a,b

Applying a curl operator to Maxwell's electric curl equation (equ 100a) forms,

∇ x (∇ x E) = - d/dt (∇ x B)...................................................102

Using equation 100b, in equation 102, then rearranging,

∇ x (∇ x E) = - 1/c (d"E/d"t)....................................................103

....................................................................................................................................

A second equation is derived using the gradient identity (Klein, p. 523),

∇ x (∇ x E) = E(∇ · E) - ∇2 E........................................104

and ∇ · E = 0 (equ 101a) to form,

∇ x (∇ x E) = ∇2 E...........................................................105

....................................................................................................................................

Equating equations 103 and 105 (Hobson, p. 23),

d"E/d"t - c2 ∇2 E = 0.......................................................106

A similar equation is derived for the magnetic field,

d"B/d"t - c2 ∇2 B = 0........................................................107

The r-direction electromagnetic wave equations of light (fig 15) are derived using equations 106 and 107,

E = Eo ei(kr - wt) .......................................................108

B = Bo ei(kr - wt) ........................................................109

The second order gradients:

\nabla^2 E = \frac{\partial^2 E}{\partial^2 x} \mathbf{i} + \frac{\partial^2 E}{\partial^2 y} \mathbf{j} + \frac{\partial^2 E}{\partial^2 z} \mathbf{k}.............................................110

\nabla^2 B = \frac{\partial^2 B}{\partial^2 x} \mathbf{i} + \frac{\partial^2 B}{\partial^2 y} \mathbf{j} + \frac{\partial^2 B}{\partial^2 z} \mathbf{k}..............................................111

The second order gradients ∇2 E and ∇2 B, of equations 106 and 107,  represent electromagnetic longitudinal waves (equ 108 & 109) that conflict with Maxwell's divergence equations (equ 101a,b), which represents  transverse waves, that is used in the derivation of equations 106 and 107 which proves the derivation of the electromagnetic wave equations of light is mathematically invalid. Maxwell's curl equations (equ 100a,b) that represent a longitudinal waves is incompatible with Maxwell's divergence equation (equ 101a,b) that represent  transverse waves.

The electromagnetic wave equations (equ 96 & 97), (equ 108 & 109)  contain the terms (kr - wt) and  (kz  - wt)  but using k = 2π/λ, and ct = r in kr forms,

kz = (2π/λ)(ct)............&................kr = (2π/λ)(ct................................................112a,b

Simplifying equation 112a using λf = c and w = 2πf forms,

kz = kr = (2π/λ)(λf)t = (2πf)t = wt...........................................................................113

rearranging equation 113 forms,

kz - wt = 0..........&...................kr - wt = 0..............................................................114a,b

Equation 114a,b proves the derivation of the electromagnetic wave equations of light (equ 96 & 97), (equ 108 & 109), using Maxwell's equations, is physically invalid.

§ 28. Transmission and Reflection Equations

The transmission and reflection equations of light are derived, using the electric wave equations, represented with (Hecht, p. 111),

I = Io cos(k1x - wt) ĵ,.................................................115

R = Io cos(k1x - wt) ĵ,................................................116

T = Io cos(-k2x - wt) ĵ,...............................................117

The incident I, transmission T and reflection R light waves' (equ 115 - 117) interaction, at the transmission and reflection surface (fig 16), is represented with,

Io cos(k1x - wt) j + Ro cos(k1x - wt) j = To cos(- k2x + wt) j......................118

Using t = 0 and x = 0, equation 118 forms (Hecht, p. 113), (Klein, p. 570),

Io + Ro = To............................................................119

The following equation (Hecht, p. 114),

n1Io - n1Ro = n2To.................................................120

and equation 119 are used to derive the transmission and reflection equations,

t = 2n1 / (n1 + n2).................................................121

r = (n2 - n1) / (n1 + n2).........................................122

Using an air glass surface, n1 = 1 and n2 = 1.5, equation 120 forms,

Io - Ro = 1.5To.....................................................123

The difference of the incident (Io) and reflection (Ro) maximum amplitudes, derived using equation 120, forms a value that is larger than the sum (equ 119) which proves the derivation of the transmission and reflection equations of light, using equations 119 and 120 is  mathematically invalid.

In quantum mechanics, the step potential method is used to derive the transmission and reflection equation using (Eisberg, p. 211), (McGervey, p. 102),

A + B = C............................................................124

and

k1(A - B) = k2C....................................................125

Using a air glass surface interface, the value of k2 is greater than k1; consequently, k can be replace with n, in equation 125, to form,

n1A - n1B = n2C...............................................126

Equations 124 and 126 are used in the derivation of the transmission and reflection equations.

t = 2n1 / (n1 + n2).................................................127

r = (n2 - n1) / (n1 + n2).........................................128

Using n1 = 1 and n2 = 1.5 in equation 126 forms,

A - B = (1.5)C...................................................129

Using a air/glass interface, the difference of the incident and reflection waves' maximum amplitudes (equ 129) is large then the sum (equ 124) which proves the quantum mechanics derivation of the transmission and reflection equations is mathematically invalid.

§ 29. Polarization

Polarized light is represented using two adjacent electric transverse waves that phase difference forms linear, elliptical and circular polarized light (Hecht, p. 325-328) but the electric field of polarized light originates from Maxwell's theory that is represented with Faraday's induction experiment and Maxwell's electric current but Faraday's induction effect is not luminous and Maxwell's electric current is formed by the motion of the molecules of a dielectric yet polarized light propagates in vacuum that is void of matter which is experimental proof Maxwell's electric field does not physically exist. Also, a finite volume, in vacuum, that contains an electric field, represents an infinite number of positions; when an infinite number of position is represented with electric field vectors, an infinite energy is formed. The ether (dielectric), composed of matter, limiting the number of positions forming a finite energy but Maxwell's dielectric, composed of matter, does not physically exist in vacuum. An wave is a mechanical entity that requires a medium, composed of matter; therefore, Maxwell's electric light waves that are used to represent polarization do not physically exist. Furthermore, a transverse wave is a surface wave that cannot form in the volume. The disturbance within a volume forms a spherical wave that produces a longitudinal wave that contradicts the polarization mechanism that is based on electric transverse waves.

In the mechanism of the formation of linear polarization, non-polarized light interact with a linear polarization filter forming linear polarized light. Non-polarized light (natural light) is represented with numerous transverse wave on the same axis. The transverse waves of non-polarized light represent the possible angles of the linear polarization filter; therefore, the transverse waves of non-polarized represents more than 100 transverse waves on a single axis, of natural light but a transverse wave is a surface wave that cannot form in a volume. Physicists are ignoring that a transverse wave is a surface wave and using more than 100 transverse waves to represent non-polarized light (natural light) which is physically invalid.

§ 30. Aperture Diffraction

The rectangular aperture diffraction effect of light is described where, in the aperture, electric spherical waves are formed that are represented with (Hecht, p. 464),

dE = (Eo/r) ei(wt - kr) dS................................................130

The distance form the points the plane of the aperture (x,y,z) is reference to a point on the diffraction screen (X,Y,Z) and represented with,

r = R[1 - (Yy + Zz)/R2]................................................131

Equation 131 is used in equation 130, where t = 0,

E = ʃʃeik(Yy + Zz)/R dS......................................132

Equation 132 is used to derive the aperture diffraction intensity equations of light,

I = [(sin A)/A]2   [(sin B)/B]2.........................133

Hecht is using a surface integral (equ 132) to derive the diffraction intensity equation of light but a surface integral represents an area and cannot be used to summate the interfering light waves amplitudes, at the diffraction screen, which is mathematical proof Fresnel's derivation of the diffraction intensity equation of light (equ 133) is mathematically invalid.

During the diffraction effect, the crests and nodes, of a light wave, propagates in the forward direction. At a point (Y,Z) on the diffraction screen, as time increases, the propagating light waves' amplitudes oscillate, forming a resultant amplitude of zero, which would eliminate the interference effect of the interfering light waves; consequently, Hecht using t = 0 to eliminate the oscillation of the light waves that eliminates the diffraction pattern but using t = 0 also eliminates the propagation of the light waves. One of the most important characteristic of light, the propagation of light, is omitted in Hecht's derivation of the aperture diffraction intensity equation of light.

In an experiment, a small rectangular aperture forms a diffraction pattern (fig 5). The destructive interference of the light waves' amplitudes would result in a measureable reduction in the total light intensity of the diffraction pattern since the destroyed light waves amplitudes (intensities) do not contribute to the total light intensity of the diffraction pattern. In the small rectangular aperture diffraction experiment, more than 10% of the diffraction pattern is composed of dark areas which would result in at least a 10% reduction of the total light intensity of the diffraction pattern yet experimentally, the total light intensity that enters the aperture (dt = 1s) equals the total light intensity of the diffraction pattern (dt = 1s) which proves the aperture diffraction effect of light is not formed by wave interference. In addition, the calculated irradiance (intensity per area) of the small rectangular aperture diffraction pattern, using equation 133, produces an irradiance, of the second intensity peak, of approximately 3% of the first maximum, at the center of the diffraction pattern (Hecht, p. 466) yet experimentally, the second intensity has a irradiance of approximately 40% of the first intensity peak; consequently, the derived small rectangular aperture diffraction intensity equation (equ 133) does not correspond with the experimental results of the small rectangular aperture diffraction pattern.

§ 31. Optic Particle

Lenard's photoelectric effect proves light is composed of particles which is experimental proof the aperture diffraction and polarization effects of light are particle effects. Fresnel describes diffraction where spherical waves (secondary waves) form by a wave front, at the diffraction object, but a spherical wave forms a retrogressive wave that would produce a diffraction pattern in the reverse (backwards) direction that is not experimentally observed. Also, the formation of spherical waves that originates from the wave front that interact with the diffraction object is representing a wave front as a physical light source which violates energy conservation. Also, the wave theory of light is based on an optical medium (ether), composed of matter, yet light propagates in vacuum that is void of an optical ether, composed of matter, which is experimental proof diffraction is not a wave phenomenon. Maxwell's theory is based on an optical ether, composed of matter, yet Maxwell ignores that light propagates in vacuum that is void of matter and supports the wave theory of light. Also, Minkowski represents the optical aether, with Maxwell's equations but Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday's induction experiment that is not luminous. Furthermore, Lenard's photoelectric effect proves light is composed of particles that energy is dependent on only the frequency which conflicts with Fresnel's diffraction mechanism where the interfering light waves amplitudes form the intensity (energy) of the diffraction pattern. I predicts that the aperture diffraction effect of light is formed by optical particles that are redirected by the aperture to only the intensity areas of the diffraction pattern without involving an optical ether, light waves or wave interference. The energy of the redirected optic particles from the intensity of the diffraction pattern without involving electromagnetic fields or Maxwell's equations. Maxwell's describes the polarization effect of light using transverse waves but a transverse wave is a surface wave that cannot form within the volume since a volume forms a spherical wave that produces a longitudinal wave. In the grid polarization effect, a fine wire grid is used to form linear polarized light. I predict that the spaces between the wire grid aligns the optic particles that interact with the polarization grid forming linear polarized light; consequently, the grid wire polarization effect is formed by the alignment of optic particles.

§ 32. Conclusion

The wave theory of light is base on light wave formed by the motion of an optical ether, composed of matter yet light propagates in vacuum that is void of matter. Lorentz is justify the existence of Fresnel's ether, composed of matter, by reversing the negative result of Michelson's experiment yet light propagating in vacuum proves Fresnel ether does not physically exist. In Einstein's (1905) electrodynamics, Einstein alters the dimensions of Maxwell's equations to justify light propagating in vacuum but manipulating the coordinate system of Maxwell's equations does not change the fact that vacuum is void of matter, nor does Einstein's coordinate system transformation change the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Faraday induction experiment that is not luminous. Einstein describes an electromagnetic ether (Einstein4, § 1) but the electromagnetic field of Einstein's electromagnetic ether originates from Maxwell's theory. Also, in Einstein's paper, "Relativity: Special and General Theory" (1917), Einstein is reversing the negative result of Michelson-Morley experiment to justify the existence of Fresnel's ether, composed of matter, that does not physically exist (vacuum).

Maxwell's electromagnetic theory of light, based on Faraday induction experiment, is introduced since induction forms in vacuum but induction is not luminous; consequently, Poynting (1884) supports Maxwell's theory by deriving an EM energy equation of light but Poynting's current wire is also not luminous. Hertz's (1887) attempts to support Maxwell by structurally uniting light with induction, using a spark gap experiment, that emits light and the radio induction effect, but Hertz's spark gap emits electrons yet induction is not an ionization effect. In addition, Planck (1901) uses the blackbody radiation effect to support Maxwell's theory but Planck's blackbody also emits electrons. The emission of light is always accompanied by the emission of electrons yet Faraday induction experiment is not ionization effects which proves light is not an electromagnetic induction phenomenon.

Quantum mechanics, quantum electrodynamics, string theory, and particle physics, (boson) are supporting Maxwell's theory by using the gauge transformation of Maxwell's equations but representing Maxwell's equations with a potential does not change the fact that Maxwell's equations are derived using Ampere and Faraday induction experiments that are not luminous. Quantumn mechanics is based on Planck's quantization of Maxwell's electromagnetic field but Planck's blackbody emits electrons yet induction is not an ionization effect which is experimental proof Planck's quantization is physically invalid. Davisson–Germer (1927) electron scattering experiment is used to justify wave interference but the destructive interference of an electron matter wave to form the non-electron fringes of the electron scattering pattern, violates energy conservation. In particle physics, subatomic particles are experimentally detected using tracks formed within a bubble chamber that contains liquid hydrogen. The accelerated high energy electron beam is incident to a metallic target that produces subatomic particles which propagate through the steel enclosure (more than an inch thick) of the bubble chamber to form tracks, in the hydrogen liquid, that are used to justify the existence of subatomic particles but subatomic particles, that have a mass, cannot propagate through the steel container of the bubble chamber without producing a hole in the steel enclosure of the bubble chamber and created an explosion. In gravitational physics, Webber (1970) experimentally detected gravity waves that have the frequency of sound (1662 Hz) (Webber Intro) yet the vacuum of celestial space does not transmit sound waves. Wheeler's (1973) describes electromagnetic gravity waves (Misner, p. 961) that Thorne states propagate at the velocity of light (Hawking, p. 338). The gravity inteferometer of the European pulsar timing array (EPTA) detected electromagnetic gravity waves of frequencies of approximately v = 10-9 Hz which forms a wavelength of λ = 1016 meters that proves the complete failure of modern theoretical physics based on the wave theory of light. I predict that the aperture diffraction effect is formed by photons, that are redirected, by the aperture, to only the intensity areas of the diffraction pattern without involving an ether, light waves, wave interference, electromagnetic fields or Maxwell's equations.

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Lada Sartakova