User:Psg2022/Social determinants of mental health

The social determinants of mental health (SDOMH) are “societal problems that disrupt optimal mental health, increase risk for and prevalence of mental illnesses, and worsen outcomes among individuals with mental illnesses.”[1] Much like the social determinants of health (SDOH), SDOMH include the non-medical factors that play a role in the likelihood and severity of health outcomes, such as income levels, education attainment, access to housing, social inclusion, etc.[2] However, specifically when examining the topic of mental health, disparities in health outcomes are a result of a multitude of factors and social determinants, including fixed characteristics on an individual level – such as age, gender, race/ethnicity, and sexual orientation – and environmental factors that stem from social and economic inequalities – such as inadequate access to proper food, housing and transportation and exposure to pollution.[3]

Definitions and measurements
Mental health as defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2022 is “a state of mental well-being that enables people to cope with the stresses of life, realize their abilities, learn well and work well, and contribute to their community.”[4] The concept of mental health cannot be examined independent from the various individual and social determinants that influence it because exposure to different conditions and circumstances, along with genetic predispositions, affects one’s experiences with mental health, illnesses, and/or disorders. On the other hand, a mental disorder is defined as “a clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotional regulation, or behaviour…[and]  is usually associated with distress or impairment in important areas of functioning.”[5]

The concept of social determinants stems from the life course approach. It draws from theories that explain the social, economic, environmental, and physical patterns that result in health disparities and vary across different stages of life (e.g. prenatal, early years, working age, older ages).[6] The social determinants are more commonly examined in the context of healthcare access more broadly, however, recently the examination of social determinants of mental health has been gaining attention, as demonstrated by the increase of article publications studying this topic in the past decade (nearly 90% of articles in Google Scholar on “social determinants of mental” health issue have published since 2012).[7]

Health Inequities
Globally, in 2019, 1 in every 8 individuals (12.5% of the population) lived with a mental disorder, however in 2020, due to the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, that number grew dramatically by around 27%.

While mental illnesses and disorders have seen increased prevalence recently, studies have shown that mental health outcomes are worse for some populations and communities than others. One such inequity is that of gender: females are twice as likely to have a mental illness than males.[8][9][10]

Fixed Characteristics
Fixed characteristics refers to those that are genetic and biological and/or are not subjected to be influenced by the environment or social living conditions of an individual.[11]

Gender
The second leading cause of global disability burden in 2020 was unipolar depression, and research showed that depression was twice as likely to be prevalent in women than in men. [12][13][14] Gender-based mental health disparities suggest that gender is a factor that could be leading to unequal health outcomes.

Research studies included in Lancet Psychiatry Women’s Mental Health Series focuses on understanding why some of these gendered disparities might exist.[15] Kuehner in her article Why is depression more common among women than among men? mentions several risk factors that contributes to these inequities, including the role of a women’s sex hormones and “blunted hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis response to stress”.[16] Other factors include a woman’s increased likelihood to body shaming and rumination and stressors on an interpersonal level, as well as sexual abuse during childhood. Further, the prevalence of gender inequality and discrimination in society against women may also be a contributing factor. Li et al. finds that the monthly and lifespan fluctuations of sex hormones oestradiol and progesterone in women may also influence the gender gap, especially in the context of trauma-related, stress-related, and anxiety disorders, such as through increasing vulnerability to development of these disorders and permitting the continued persistence of symptoms for these disorders.[17]

Increased likelihood of gender-based violence for women compared to men is also another risk factor that was studied by Oram et al. Researchers found that women have a higher risk of being subjected to domestic and sexual violence, thereby increasing their prevalence to post-traumatic stress, anxiety, and depression. Also notable to consider in the context of gender-based trauma are female genital mutilation, forced and early marriage, human trafficking, and honor crimes.

While women are reported to experience higher rates of depressive and anxiety related disorders, men are more likely to commit suicide than women: in the UK, suicide is the biggest cause of death for men 45 and younger, and in the likelihood of committing suicide, men are four times more likely in Russia and Argentina, three and a half times more likely in the United States, and three times more likely in Australia, than women, to name a few countries. [18] Gender differences in suicide are commonly explained by pressure for gender roles and higher risk-taking behavior among men. [19]

Sexual orientation
In studies comparing mental health outcomes between members of the lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer (questioning), intersex, asexual and agender (LGBTQIA+) community with heterosexuals, the former showed increased risks of poor mental health.[20][21] In fact, LGBTQIA+ individuals are twice as likely to have a mental disorder compared to their heterosexual counterparts, and two and a half times more likely to experience anxiety, depression, and substance misuse. [22][23]

Based on the minority stress model, these mental health disparities among LGBTQIA+ people are due to discrimination and stigma. In fact, LGBTQIA+ individuals have expressed difficulty in accessing healthcare due to experienced discrimination and stigma, which as a result, causes them to not seek healthcare at all or rather delay it.[24]Further societal isolation and feelings of rejection may also contribute to the prevalence of mental disorders among this community.[25] In addition to the perceived and experienced stigma, LGBTQIA+ have an increased likelihood of being victims of violence. [26]These factors, alongside others, contribute significantly to differences in mental health experiences for members of the LGBTQIA+ community in comparison to their heterosexual counterparts, thereby result in mental health inequities by sexual orientation.

Race/ethnicity
Studies in the conducted in the United States have indicated that minorities have similar or smaller rates of prevalence for mental health disorders as their majority counterparts.[27] Blacks (24.6%) and Hispanics (19.6%) have lower depression rates than their White counterparts (34.7%) in the United States.[28] While racial/ethnic minority groups may have similar prevalence rates, the consequences because of mental illness are more prolonged – which may be partly explained due to the smaller access rates for mental health treatments. In 2018, while 56.7% of the general US population who had a mental illness didn’t seek treatment, 69.4% and 67.1% Black and Hispanics didn’t access care. [29] Further, in the instances of some mental illnesses, such as schizophrenia, Blacks in the United States have been reported to have higher rates compared to their White counterparts, however, research suggests that this could be due to an overdiagnosis among clinicians and underdiagnosis for other illnesses, such as mood disorders, for which Blacks had lower reported prevalence rates for major depression. [30][31][32] These instances of misdiagnosis may be due to “lac of cultural understanding by health care providers,…language differences between patient and provider, stigma of mental illness among minority groups, and cultural presentation of symptoms.”[33]