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Shopping addiction Shopping addiction is defined as the deficiency of impulse control which appears as the eagerness for constantly making new purchases of unnecessary or superfluous things. It is a concept near "compulsive buying disorder" and "oniomania" although these terms usually have a more clinical approach, related to a  psychological individual disorder of impulse control. Currently the phrase “shopping addiction” usually has a more psychosocial perspective or it is placed among drug-free addictions as the addiction to gambling, Internet, video-games, and so on. The shopping addiction has received a special attention since the eighties, when a spectacular rising in the number of people with problems related to behaviour and values of consumer society was clear.

Different theorical approaches of the shopping addiction

 * Clinical approach: since ancient times, cases of people who bought in an uncontrolled way have been described, but the first relevant references to shopping addiction appear in the beginning of the twenty century with Kraepelin and Bleuler. They analysed cases of people, usually women, who were not able to control their excess of purchasing and they considered this behaviour as a symptom of other psychological diseases: depression, obsessive compulsive disorder, problems with control of impulses, etc. This clinical approach is also followed by the psychoanalytic theories that interpreted this behaviour as close to the kleptomania and these would be manifestations of internal conflicts. Until the eighties this clinical approach has been the predominant in psychology and psychiatry. Shopping addiction was considered as an individual disorder of impulse control or obsessive compulsive, and its higher incidence rate in women and its relations with depression problems were emphasized.
 * Psychosocial approach Consumerist.jpg : Since the eighties a spectacular rising in the number of people with important problems of lack of control in shopping and spending was established. Given the fact that this rising was parallel with the spreading of the values and behaviour of the consumer society, these disorders started to be considered as an individual manifestation of a general social problem. One of these models was that one by Javier Garcés and Alejandro Salcedo who regard the shopping addiction as  "the tip of the iceberg” that is, the most intense manifestation of a general problem which affects, to a greater or lesser extent, a great deal of the population. In our current society the behaviour differences between the average consumer and the shopping addict are more quantitative than qualitative. The advertising and commercial influences, that cause in some people serious problems of shopping addiction or excessive indebtedness, are the same which bring about excessive consumer behaviour on most citizens. This model is graphically described by the “consumerist pyramid”. Another model is the one defended by Helga Ditmar, which could be classified as a mixed model, since she considers that the shopping addiction problems are caused by the conjunction of two factors: a high level of materialism and a high discrepancy between the real self-concept (how the person sees themselves) and the ideal self-concept (how the person wishes to see themselves).).
 * Shopping addiction as a drug-free addiction or as a social addiction. In this theoretic perspective, non-incompatible with the previous, shopping addiction is usually included among the so-called “drug-free addiction”, as the addiction to gambling and, specifically, within the denominated as new social addictions as the addiction to Internet, video-games or mobile-phones.

Behavioural manifestations of the shopping addiction.
There are three kinds of behavioural manifestations of the shopping addiction, with different repercussions on the personal life. These manifestations can display together or independently and in a way more or less intense each one of them. Nevertheless they are closely related and appear joined in people who seriously suffer from this disorder:.


 * The attraction towards the consumer stimulus, this is the addiction to purchase as a leisure activity. It is about the uncontrolled and excessive draw to use the shopping as a leisure activity, usually in an exclusive and   overwhelming way. It is clear that in our society activities as going   window-shopping, visiting shops or spending long time in commercial centres, even though there is no need for buy anything, have become to be a way of leisure which is very attractive to many people and this is socially accepted. What differences an addict is that this excessive attraction to purchase, interferes with the normal development of life and damages their relation with the others, becoming an obsessive and uncontrolled activity.  Not all people who have an addiction towards the consumer stimulus are truly shopping addict, although many of them will end up being so.CENTRO COMERCIAL.jpg
 * Shopping addiction and compulsive purchase. Although shopping addiction and compulsive purchase are conceptually different, they are interrelated and both are manifestations of the same problem: the lack of self-control when buying and to restrain impulses. Shopping addiction is understood as the eagerness for constantly making new purchases of unnecessary or superfluous things. The concept of compulsive purchase is referred to the psychological process which causes many people not to be able to control their impulses and wishes of buying, and subject them to reflexion and evaluation before purchasing. Of course, not all the unforeseen or non-planned purchases are compulsive.  A person can find an offer for a product that they need, but not thinking about immediately buying, and end up doing so. This is not a compulsive purchase.  Because of this, it is important to point out that a basic behavioural characteristic of people, who have serious problems of consumer addiction, is that their purchases are unnecessary and unsatisfactory. In a certain way, the addicts may feel pleasure or relief when they give in to the strain of the shopping wish, but regretting it after this. In case of people with severe problems of shopping addiction, this remorse can be a very deep feeling of blame and discomfort. Nevertheless most of consumers simply forget or never use the purchased item, which has stopped being attractive once bought.
 * Lack of economic self-control: this is the serious and permanent inability to adjust the habits of spending to the economic means of the individual. This is not about one´s ordinary or unexpected spending making them live with difficulty but there is an absolute inability to control the personal or family income in a rational way, and to discipline their buying, no matter how superfluous it is. A manifestation of this lack of control is usually the excessive use of indebtedness. Buying takes their ride on living on credit and they get used to connecting one loan with another, and they increase the amount of credit and the recklessness of their indebtedness. The final result is the active or “guilty” over-indebtedness; this is which is derived from the improper behaviour of the consumer.

Impact of the shopping addiction on the general population.
The rate of people who have problems of shopping addiction is a very controversial matter, because the dividing line between pathological behaviours and those behaviours which, even excessive, are socially accepted, it is very difficult to determine. However, the following can be pointed out:
 * Shopping addiction and other manifestations of the lack of self-control on spending are widespread problems which are constantly expanding in our society. The studies with samples of the general population show that between 8% and 16% of the people have problems with excessive or uncontrolled purchases. Regarding the clinical studies the figures are lower: between 2% and 5%. . According to the European Report on the programme for the prevention and treatment of personal problems related to consumer addiction, personal purchasing habits and over-indebtedness, the 3% of the European adults and the 8% of the European youngsters have a level of shopping addiction which could be considered as pathologic, that is, which seriously affects the life of the people who suffer from this.
 * Most of people who have these problems neither receive nor ask for treatment. Those that ask for help only do it after years of suffering, when the addiction has caused very serious economic repercussion and has harmed the relationship with their family and social environment. For this reason and due to the lack of social consciousness about this problem, the unrecorded figure of people who suffer from these problems is very high.
 * In addition to the severe cases of shopping addiction, an important part of consumers (between 30% and 50% of the population) have deficiencies with spending self-control or the excessive purchase. According to the above mentioned European Report the 33% of the European adults and the 46% of the European youngsters have minor or moderate problems with shopping addiction or lack of economic self-control.

Relation with other disorders and personality features.
The relationship of shopping addiction with other psychological disorders –especially with those regarding depression or anxiety - has been studied. This addiction has also been related with the low self-esteem and with personality features as impulsivity, materialism and hedonism.
 * Relation with depression: Depression problems are the most frequent suffering in the most serious cases of shopping addiction. This relationship is due to the fact that many consumers use shopping as a means to compensate or to face depressive states. Edwards (1992) in a research to study the influence of some personal variables in two groups, one of shopping addicts and another of non-addict consumers, came to the conclusion that depression is a trigger for shopping addiction problems. In agreement with these data other researchers have pointed out the high incidence rate of depressive disorders among shopping addicts. Hence, Mc.Elloy (1994) placed at 25 % the rate of addicts with depressive problems, Lejoyeux (1998) at 61%, and Black, Montaban and Gabel (1997) at 60%. . More recent researches, as the above referred European Report, show that the shopping addicts usually have feelings of leading an unsatisfactory and listless life, without any hope or excitement. In these cases, by means of purchase, the addicts seek for a way of escape, a satisfaction, even if momentary to compensate and to bear the depressive feelings.
 * Relation with anxiety. Cole (1995) carried out a research with a sample of 420 people and come to the conclusion that anxiety has an essential role in shopping addiction, as antecedent or a triggering factor. In another research Valence (1988) revealed that as the level of anxiety rises, the possibility of developing shopping addiction grows. The clinical researches ont the rate incidence of anxiety disorders in the shopping addition, also show this relationship, although the percentage changes a lot: Shlosser (1994) 42%; McElroy (1994) 80%, and Christenson (1994) 50%. A research carried out by Garcés and Salcedo in 2005,12 based on a sample of 253 youngsters, concluded that the anxiety trait has a significant influence on shopping addiction but, by itself, is not determinant.

Differences between men and women
A higher rate of incidence of the shopping addiction in women was pointed out in the first research works on the subject, even it was considered as a “women problem”. Some researchers thought that this was a specifically female manifestation of problems of depression or obsessive-compulsive disorders. Others, from a psychoanalyst point of view, thought that it was a problem very similar to kleptomania and they related it to sexual repression to explain the high rate of incidence in women. The following research carried out in the last century confirmed this difference although disagreeing on the scope. (Reisch and Scherhorn 1996, Schlosser 1994). Other hypotheses have been recently stated to explain these differences. This way has been indicated that people develop more easily addiction to behaviours they usually have  In our society most of the home purchase is still done by women. Since shopping is for many women one of their most usual activities, as obligation or as entertainment, it easily becomes an important mechanism of escape, facing other problems and ending up being an addiction. Another possible cause is that the most striking cases of shopping excesses are usually related to clothes, shoes, cosmetics and accessories. These products related to physical appearance are more frequently bought by women. Whereas the excessive purchase of other products as electronic, computer or D.I.Y ones, accessories of cars, etc., that are frequently done by men usually goes unnoticed. This appraisal has been confirmed by important research on different products bought by addicted women and men. Several studies (Flaber, O´Guin and Krych in1987, Scherhorn 1990, and McElroy in 1994) agree on women spending more on clothes, footwear, perfumes and, in general terms, men tend to squander on sports equipment, and accessories of cars and electronic products. The European Report carried out in 1999 established that women are drawn by activities like going shopping or window shopping, spending time in malls, escorting other people shopping etc. Moreover they use more frequently shopping as a means of facing states of sadness, depression or downheartedness. However, the Report does not indicate significant differences between men and women related to economic self-control or impulsive purchase. This appraisal of women being more drawn toward shopping but not being more wasteful, has been confirmed by other works of research. Underhill stated that  “women feel more liking for what we know as “shopping”, this is, walking slowly in stores, looking at items, comparing products and prices, interacting with the sellers and, finally, buying. Among men this stage of “pre-shopping” is usually shorter but this does not mean that they are more controlled in purchase.

Differences due to age
Research carried out on people undergoing treatment, as well as on the general group (D´Astous, Scherhon 1990), has revealed a negative correlation between age and addiction. As the age of people increases there is a lower number of shopping addicts. These data were confirmed by the above-mentioned European Report. It is necessary to keep in mind that the age of diagnosis is much later than the age when the problems of addiction begin. Most of addicts have the first symptoms of addiction in their twenties, but neither do they ask for help nor accept treatment until more that ten years afterwards. There are many years in their lives when the addiction problems grow and the debts and economic problems of the addict do so as well without doing anything to face them. To explain this higher incidence of shopping addiction in young people, it has been shown that the youngest have been born, and have grown in a society increasingly consumerist and they have endured the growly impact of the publicity and marketing, from birth. On the contrary, it is very unusual to find shopping addiction problems in people older than 65 years.

Diagnosis of shopping addiction.
Since the fact that people buy more than they need is usual and accepted in our society, even the most excessive behaviour takes long time before being considered as pathological. Shopping addiction generally reveals between 20-30 years old, but it is not usually detected until several years after, when the addiction has led the person to ruin and bankrupting. There are usually two stages in the coping with the problem. First people around the addict or the health or social services detect the problem and try to treat it. When, because of the seriousness of the case, it is not possible to solve it in this way, specialised professionals, as psychologist or psychiatrics, take part. The diagnosis and evaluation of shopping addiction is based on the analysis of confirmed behaviours and their consequences. Specific tests or questionnaires, as the FACC-II (Questionnaire on the psychological aspects of consumer addiction, debt and personal spending habits) are also used. These resources as well as personal interviews of the addict and people who surround them reports and other documents allow to know: Regarding the use of specific questionnaires or test, they are very useful to the diagnosis and evaluation of the shopping addiction problems, and to  drive the therapies in a proper way. The above quoted FACC-II is one of the most specific and widest. The FACC-II questionnaire seeks to carry out the individual evaluation of diverse behaviour, attitudes and people's ideas in connection with the addiction to shopping and consumer activities, the tendency to compulsive shopping, shopping-dependency, deficiencies in economic self-control, the tendency to excessive indebtedness and the economic imbalances derived from psychological factors.
 * When do they buy?  The study of the situation related to the excessive shopping is very important, because it will be essential key to understand and deal with the problem.  Do they usually buy alone or with someone?   At the same time every day? Do they always buy in a certain mood, for example when they feel sad or bored?. That way, knowing the situations that influence on compulsive purchase, it is possible to change them to help solve the problem.
 * What is bought?. People with problem of shopping addiction are usually drawn by a very specific kind of object. This way, some shopping addict women usually get obsessed with buying objects related to physical appearance as clothes, cosmetics, perfumes, jewels, etc. Some men usually buy electronic, computing or automotive items excessively.  Knowing the kind of product which the addict buys is an important clue to the disorder. For example, the excessive purchase related to physical appearance can show self-esteem or self-image problems.
 * Methods of payment and economic control are crucial questions, because shopping addiction problems are usually associated with the excessive use of the credit card and other ways of credit. Therefore, knowing the payment methods is fundamental: do they always pay by card?, do they pay in instalments?, are they worried about having enough to deal with their purchase by card?. Have they accumulated overdue loans?

Pharmacological treatment
The inclusion of this problem in the obsessive-compulsive disorders and its relation with the depression has led to use some antidepressant as a treatment. Within the antidepressant drugs, special attention has been paid to those related to serotonin, a brain neurotransmitter. This substance is supposed to be related to deficiencies in stimulus control, so that the medicines, like fluoxetine and fluvoxamine, that raise the level of serotonin in the brain, would be a pharmacological alternative to treat the shopping addiction. Even though results are not conclusive, in the nineties some researches were carried out which support the effectiveness of those treatments, at least in certain cases.

Behaviour therapy
The treatment of shopping addiction – in contrast to other addictions as the game, alcohol or smoking ones-, cannot pursue to permanently remove the addicts from the behaviour which they are endure. After therapy, they must be able to face the consumer stimuli which surrounded them (shop, store window, publicity, etc.), keeping their self -control. Because of this, the most usual therapies are the behavioural ones, especially the stimuli control and exposure and response prevention
 * Stimuli control and exposure and response prevention. Facing the problems as shopping addiction, which suppose the impulsivity and the lack of control against some stimuli, the most obvious treatment is to avoid the exposure to these stimuli. This is so elementary that many consumers try to face the compulsive purchase by means of avoiding to walk in streets where there are many shops or enter department stores.  To addicts, is very much easier to limit their exposure to the consumer stimuli to which they are addicted, than to overcome temptation when they are in front of them. Nevertheless, there are two problems in this kind of strategy. First, addicts will be always surrounded, in their ordinary life, by stimuli like shops, advertisements and other temptations. Second, nobody can spend the whole life without buying things or without entering any shops.  Because of this, the total stimuli control should be considered as an effective and essential “shock measure” to start the process of change.  After some time without being exposed to consumer temptation, it is usual that their effect as consumer-boosting disappears.
 * Exposure and response prevention. These therapies try to eliminate the inappropriate responses to some stimuli and to get the person to learn other alternative responses. A very usual strategy is to produce an intense and lengthy exposure to stimuli, preventing the response that has to be eliminated. For example, people who usually cannot resist the temptation of buying when they are in a big department store, have to stay in these shops, for a long time, with a guardian to ensure that they do not buy anything. This way, addicts learn to go into and leave the store without buying, knowing that they are able to overcome their impulses and that they feel better when they do so.  In other procedures it is the very person who, being alone, learns by themselves to resist the impulses and temptations. In these methods addicts achieve the ability to postpone the purchase decisions, and not to make them in presence of shopping stimuli. This way their economic self-control is improved.

Guardianship
In the treatment of shopping addiction is often very useful that other people –usually friends, relatives or educators - help addicts control their expenses and impulsive purchase. In these cases, addicts have to accept that all their economy, credit cards, bank accounts, etc, will be controlled by the guardian. This person becomes their “voluntary guardian”. It is possible that the addict has also to accept not to go alone to stores and other limitations, even legal.

Self-registration techniques
Self-registration techniques lie in the fact that people themselves note down their activities to be afterwards able to remember and analyse them. This can range from a simple personal accountability of income and expenses, in the cases of minor economic lack of control, to a detailed diary of purchase, events and feelings, in the more serious cases of shopping addiction. In these last cases the self-registration is very useful to get clues about the behaviour, which could go unnoticed to the addicts themselves. Moreover, it is, itself, a therapeutic means that helps the addicts understand and reflect on their behaviour. These techniques are so effective to improve the economic self-control and to avoid the impulsive purchase that are generally included, one way or another, in all the programmes of treatment.

Self-help groups and group therapy
Some experiences of self-help groups and group therapy have been carried out in a very similar way to the one they have been used in other addictions.•,