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Ethical issues of neuroimaging refers to any possible problems that may violate from the rights of the species, especially in human race. As methods in neuroimaging allows researchers to access the internal structures of the brains of participants, ethical issues in different aspects were raised.

Ethical Issues In Adults
Ethical issues in adults are more related to the respect of human rights and privacies.

Human subject researches
Kulynch in 2002 suggested that although most of the neuroimaging methods are non-invasive, which do not involve any body-engaging materials, these methods allow researchers to investigate the inside of participants physically; hence, the use of neuroimaging methods can raise the concern of human subjects researches One of the problems that related to this issue is researchers may put participants at any unnecessary risks which caused by the environment or in the process. For example, during the Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scanning, very loud noises can be produced by the scanner that may cause disturbance. Moreover, narrow spaces in the scanner limit participants movements as the tunnel like cavity of the scanner where participants lay down do not provide sufficient spaces for them to move and wires that surrounding them can be very hot so they are usually requested to lie still inside the scanner. Due to the temporal resolution of this method, participants usually required to lie still, not even a little movement of their heads is allowed in the scanner for a very long period of time. The noises and the restricted spaces can make participants become anxious and tense during the scan and may alter the performance of the participants and reduce the accuracy of the measurement for the studies or researches.

Another problem that related to the issue of human subjects researches is the lack of description and elaboration of possible risks induced. As mentioned, most of the methods that used in neuroimaging researches are non-invasive. Therefore, this may lead to the underestimation of possible risks of the studies. Using the stated Magnetic Resonance Imaging scanning as the example, there may not have known direct harm to the participants. Researchers do not intend to estimate the anxiety level of the participants; thus, do not consent the participants in a clear way. The problem raised here violates the principle of consent information of respecting the human rights and dignity for participants that proposed by the American Psychology Association (APA), which is researchers may putting participants into unnecessary risks.

Incident Findings
Incident findings refers to any abnormalities found in participants’ brain during studies, mainly in Magnetic Resonance Imaging scanning. Researchers may fail to notice abnormalities. Neuropsychologists are not neurologists, they are not professionals to detect any abnormalities in the brains, researchers may overlook minor abnormalities during the study that may cause numberous serious consequences. Even minor neurotic abnormalities can influence the outcome of the study which may lead the study into a different direction, and cause invalid results. Besides, the abnormalities that participants do not want to disclose may be shown to the public, which is not ethical.

The second problem happens when abnormalities are suspected during the study. Participants with brain abnormality are not the first ones to be told. When brain abnormalities of participants are suspected, neurologists or consultants other than the researchers will be informed. Participants will be informed (if the suspected findings are abnormal as the testing will be terminated) when the testing is terminated if the suspected findings are abnormal or after all the tests are finished if there are no abnormalities on the findings. People like research assistants involved in the studies may also be notified before the related participants. The problem that raised here is that when participants with brain abnormalities were not informed at once and are always the last one to be informed, it is not only the problem of disrespecting the privacy of the participants, but also the problem of violating human rights.

The last problem is related in the use of Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy (MRS). MRS is a method that used to investigate the concentration of neurotransmitter. Besides, this method is usually used to diagnose any disorders or mechanisms that are related to the concentration or interactions between neurotransmitters. Functioning of different brain regions or concentration of neurotransmitters can influence personalities and behaviours of human. Data found in MRS could be a measure for some abnormal behaviours, such as relationship between the function of prefrontal lobe and psychopathy behaviours, even potentially, researchers may have some biased opinions or predetermined judgements on participants after testing, although participants do not show any of those abnormal behaviours. This is not fair for the participants and again, is a violation of the principal of respecting human rights.

Ethical Issues in Children
Unlike adults, besides the stated problems, ethical issues in children related to the developments of children in neuroimaging studies are raised. As childhood is a process of both physiological and mental development, these issues may related to variations and uncertainty of the results in neuroimaging studies.

Interpretations of data
Since bodies of children are relatively not fully developed, there may be more variations in data in neuroimaging studies. As the processes and stages of development are unique in different people, unlike that in adults, there are no standard of how brains should look like in children; hence, whether the brains of the children participants look “typical” may depends on how the researchers interpret the data. These uncertainties and subjectivities may cause issues of invalid results or again, overlooked abnormalities in participants’ brains.

Possible Solutions
Many solutions were introduced while some of them do help in reducing the effect of issues.

Uses of Consent Forms
Some researchers give consent forms that present to participants before the testing to let participants understand their rights to withdraw from the study at any time. This provision and approach allows participants to play an active role to withdraw or stop the test when they find the environment uncomfortable or anything unexpected during the test. The procedure of handling incident findings will also be shown to participants in the consent forms. Participants will know that there will be a third person, who may be a neurologist or a consultant looks into their brains if researchers find anything doubted. Participants can then decide if they keep on with the study or not as they then understand their information may be disclosed to a third person which may not be related to the study.

Areas to Improve
However, there are problems like abnormalities overlooked by researchers that there is still no suitable solution at present. Using consent forms though it is not the only and the best way, it may diminish some of the problems or issues that mentioned here