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1.	MUSLIM LEADERS

MUHAMMAD ALI JINNAH

Born in Karachi to a Gujurati family, Pakistan’s founder was among the first students of a Muslim school in Bombay which was also attended by the renown Quran translator Abudllah Yusuf Ali. Jinnah also attended the school Sind Madrassat-ul-Islam in his native Karachi.

From a young age, his aspirations were clearly Islamic. When he was sent to study law in England, he chose the law school the Lincoln Inn in London because it considered Prophet Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him, as one of the greatest law givers of the world.

He became the youngest graduate at his school, completing his law degree at 18. Later, after returning to India and establishing a successful law practice, he joined the Indian National Congress and its movement to free India from British colonial rule. However, he became disenchanted with the party when Mohandas Gandhi, its leader, began brining Hindu religious language and symbolism into the movement. Jinnah felt this disempowered Muslims and slowed down the cause of freedom.

In response, he quit the Congress and returned to England. The Muslim poet-philosopher Allama Muhammad Iqbal coaxed him back to India, inspiring him with the idea of Pakistan and the need to fight for the rights of Indian Muslims, who were not fairly represented in the Hindu-majority country, particularly in the areas of politics and employment.

Jinnah rose to become president of the Muslim League and leader of the movement for Pakistan. His entry into Muslim politics also led him to become a much more conscientious Muslim as he adopted Muslim dress, learned Urdu, and studied the Quran with Islamic scholar Shabbir Usmani. These changes eventually led to him abandoning a number of unIslamic practices he had been engaged in.

Although suffering from severe tuberculosis, he kept his illness a secret not only from those who opposed his mission, but for the millions who supported him as well. He felt that disclosing his sickness would lower the morale of those working for the cause of Pakistan.

What makes Jinnah even more unique as a leader is the fact that he successfully carved out and established a nation through legal, constitutional means, without the bloodshed that usually accompanies such an endeavor. Although horrific massacres did occur after the establishment of Pakistan as Muslims and Hindus migrated across the new borders, the process of obtaining Pakistan was done peacefully.

He died in 1948, one year after achieving his goal of Pakistan.

Allama Muhammad Iqbal (1873-1938)

Iqbal is credited with developing the idea of Pakistan from the start, although he died nine years before he could see his dream come to fruition.

Although Iqbal was politically active, he was best known for his inspiring Urdu and Persian poetry, which many credit for waking up the Muslims of India to push for their rights. He was also a philosopher, whose seminal work The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam, was a collection of lectures on philosophy he had presented in Hyderabad, Aligarh, and Madras.

Born in Sialkot, Punjab, he was a descendent of Kashmiri Brahmins who had converted to Islam centuries earlier. His love for poetry was evident from a very young age, and he became a frequent participant in Lahore’s annual poetry gatherings (Mushairas).

Like Jinnah, he became a lawyer. With degrees from Cambridge University in England and a doctorate from the University of Munich in Germany, he returned to Lahore to teach at the local Government College, while maintaining a private law practice there.

Iqbal took his first important step in the realm of politics during his stay in England while studying at Cambridge University. There, he became an active member of the British Committee of the All-Indian Muslim League. When in 1906, this Committee was active in making British public opinion and political leaders accept the principle of separate electorates for the Muslims of India, Iqbal was one of the staunch supporters of the Committee. Upon returning to Lahore, he joined the existing Muslim League and served as secretary and advisor to the party.

Iqbal was convinced that the only solution for the Muslims was a two-state one, thus conceiving the idea for Pakistan, a federation composed of the Muslim-majority states of India at the time. He died in 1938, not being able to see that dream come true. However, his close partnership with Jinnah in his later years allowed him to pass the torch of the Pakistan idea to the man who would later be known as Quaid-e-Azam.

He is also credited with encouraging a young Islamic scholar and journalist from Hyderabad, India, to settle in Punjab and to establish and Islamic research institute for the revival of Islam. This man, Syed Abul Ala Mawdoodi, took up Iqbal’s offer, going on to become one of Pakistan’s leading supporters and scholars.

Iqbal’s poetry in Persian left a legacy to the revolutionaries of Iran, particularly leaders like Ali Shariati, who were inspired by his ideas of self-reliance and pan-Islamism that transcended the narrow focus on Iran alone, which marked the 1979 revolution.

Muhammad Ali Johar (1878-1931)

Do not send me back to a colonized state, for I want to go back and live in an independent country. Maulana Mohammad Ali Johar. [ 1930 ].

Islamic scholar Muhammad Ali Johar was a dynamic leader second only to Muhammad Ali Jinnah himself. He is best known for his leadership of the Khilafah movement, in whose capacity he was influential even among non-Muslims like Mohandas Gandhi.

The poet and journalist was educated at Aligarh and Oxford Universities and served in the Education Department of Rampur state, which was also his birthplace. He remained faithful to the All-India Muslim League, which he helped found, and was particularly active between 1906 and 1928. He became president of the party in 1918.

As a journalist, he established the English weekly newspaper “Comrade” from Calcutta in 1911, and the Urdu weekly “Hamdard” in 1913 from Delhi. He had also been published in English newspapers like the Manchester Guardian and The Observer.

Like other stalwarts of the Pakistan movement, his concern for Muslim issues was prominent in his activism. What sets him apart from the other leaders of the movement though, is his active support for causes outside the subcontinent. Prominent among these was his championing of the cause of the Islamic Khilafah, which collapsed in 1924. He was jailed between 1911 and 1915 for his support of this cause. In 1915, he became the main leader of the Khilafah movement and led a delegation of Indian Muslims to London for this cause in 1920.

It is important to note that the Khilafah movement was not just focused on the Islamic world and the preservation of the Ottoman Caliphate. Another aspect of it promoted the freedom of all colonized people and nations. This aspect of the movement gained support from non-Muslim leaders as well, including India’s Mohandas Gandhi.

A former member of the Indian National Congress, he left the party in 1928 and expressed his support for Quaid-e-Azam’s fourteen points.

Maulana Muhammad Ali Johar died in London and was buried in Jerusalem. He had asked in his will that he be buried there because he did not want to return to a “slave country”.

Chaudhry Fazlul Haque (1873-1962)

Chaudhry Fazlul Haque was an advocate par excellence for Muslims in India, especially those in Bengal, as well as for the Pakistan movement. He is credited with including Bengal in the vision for Pakistan.

The Saturia, Bengal-born Islamic scholar and political activist pushed for the cause of education and political empowerment of Muslims, as well as the rights of Muslim peasants in Bengal.

He was a unique blend of Islamic scholarship and Western education at a time when the two worlds were poles apart. He obtained his Islamic education at home through private tutors and studied law at the University Law College in Calcutta. In 1900, he was enrolled as an advocate in the Calcutta High Court.

A firm believer that education was the passport to a better future for Muslims in Bengal, he started the Central National Mohammedan Educational Association in 1912 to help poor and deserving Muslim students obtain the resources to further their education. He also contributed to the establishment of the Muslim University at Aligharh in 1920.

Haque established Krishak Proja Samities, a movement for the rights of the Muslim peasants of Bengal who were often at the mercy of usurious Hindu middlemen. In 1936, he successfully pushed for the enactment of the Bengal Agricultural Debtors’ Act, through which millions of Muslim peasants were relieved from millions of rupees of debt incurred by doing businesses with the Hindu middlemen.

A strong advocate for Muslim rights in India, he served as a joint secretary on the four-man drafting committee for the constitution of the All-India Muslim League, as well as the general secretary of the Bengal Provincial Muslim League in 1913. A year later, became the organization’s president.

Haque was a major participant in the historic session of the Muslim League at Lahore between March 22 and March 24, 1940, when the Pakistan Resolution was passed. He, like others at the session, was clearly wary of how India would be ruled, and more importantly, how Muslims would be treated in a post-British India. Haque, like Jinnah, did not trust the Indian National Congress, the party that was likely to lead the country after independence. Haque believed that the establishment of Pakistan was the only way to truly guarantee the political empowerment and rights of Muslims on the subcontinent.

It is critical to note that during the March 1940 session, Haque pushed for the inclusion of Bengal to be part of Pakistan. Allama Iqbal’s vision for Pakistan, which he had developed well before his death in 1938, included only northern and western sections of India. Haque’s suggestion was accepted and seven years after that critical March day, Pakistan, the East and West wings, came into being.

He migrated to Pakistan at the age of 74 in 1947 and continued to play an active role in the country’s political affairs. In 1951, he accepted the Advocate-Generalship of East Pakistan and was later elected its Chief Minister. He also served as its Governor.

Liaqat Ali Khan (1895-1951)

“Gandhi has men who can advise him and whom he can depend on. And he leans on them quite often…I have only Liaqat.”

-Muhammad Ali Jinnah

Born into an aristocratic family in Karnal, Punjab, Liaqat Ali Khan could have relied on his hefty family inheritance to maintain a life of luxury and comfort. But he did nothing of the sort.

The life of Liaqat Ali Khan, who earned the titles Qaid-e-Millat and Shahid-e-Millat, was one of complete service to the Muslims of India and the cause of Pakistan. He was so devoted that Muhammad Ali Jinnah himself referred to Khan as his “right hand man”.

He received degrees from Aligarh and Oxford Universities. It was in England that he became interested in politics, as he observed and participated in debates organized by Oxford’s Indian Majlis.

Khan obtained a law degree, however, he never really practiced as a lawyer after returning to India in 1923. The fire of politics burned in him, and that was where he really wanted to apply himself.

The opportunity arrived with the All-India Muslim League. Khan became one of its members in 1923 and when in 1926, the elections were being held for the Legislative Assembly, he contested for a seat in the Assembly as an independent candidate.

Khan was elected Honorary Secretary of the Muslim League, then General Secretary for the party, a post he retained from 1936 until the establishment of Pakistan in 1947. In this capacity, he developed into a reliable and trustworthy right-hand man for Jinnah as he developed and worked on the establishment of Pakistan.

Khan was a very hard worker, and interestingly, he had an amazing capacity to juggle several important posts. Besides being the Deputy Leader of the Muslim League Assembly Party, he was also Honorary Secretary General of the Muslim League, Convenor of the Action Committee of the Muslim League, Chairman of the Central Parliamentary Board, and the Managing Director of the party’s newspaper Dawn.

This ability to juggle many assignments perhaps served as good training for the critical roles he would play once Pakistan was established in 1947: as the country’s first Prime Minister, who was also in charge of Foreign Affairs and Commonwealth Relations and Defense. This task was made even more arduous by the fact that everything in Pakistan needed to be built anew in this nascent nation. He was able to manage his many tasks even as the country lost Jinnah in 1948.

Khan’s life ended tragically in October 1951, after he was shot to death while giving a speech in Rawalpindi. His dying words, after reciting the Islamic declaration of faith were, “May God protect Pakistan.”

Choudhary Rahmat Ali [1895-1951]

Chaudhry Rahmat Ali, founder of the Pakistan National Movement, was born in 1895. From his early childhood, Rahmat Ali showed signs of great promise as a student. After completing his schooling, he joined the Islamia College of Lahore in order to get his Bachelor of Arts degree. Rahmat Ali finished education in England, obtaining MA and LLB with honors from the universities of Cambridge and Dublin.

It was during the years 1930 through 1933, that he seemed to have established the Pakistan National Movement, with its headquarter at Cambridge. On January 28, 1933, he issued his first memorable pamphlet "Now or Never; Are we to live or perish forever?" He coined the word "Pakistan" for 30 million Muslims who live in the five northern units of India; Punjab, North West Frontier (Afghan) Province, Kashmir, Sindh and Baluchistan. The pamphlet also gave reasons for the establishment of Pakistan as a separate nation. He spoke of an independent homeland for Muslims, Pakistan, in the northern units of India, "Bang-i-Islam" for Muslims in Bengal, and "Usmanistan" for the Muslims in Hyderabad-Deccan.

Chaudhry Rahmat Ali propagated the Scheme of Pakistan with a missionary zeal since its inception in 1933. In August 1947, Pakistan came to be established and in 1948 Chaudhry Rahmat Ali visited Pakistan. Later he proceeded to England to champion the cause of Kashmir through the United Nations.

Sick and weak, he died on February 12, 1951.

THE KASHMIR ISSUE A DETAILED NOTE ON THE KASHMIR ISSUE BETWEEN PAKISTAN AND INDIA

Introduction

Kashmir, the last of the defiant states, was the reverse of Hyderabad. It had a Hindu Ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh, but his subjects were mostly Muslims, accounting to 77 percent of the total population. The Maharaja was reluctant to join either India or Pakistan. But Lord Mountbatten urged him to take a decision to join either of the states before August 15, 1947. The Maharaja asked for more time to consider his decision. In the meantime he asked the Indian and the Pakistani government to sign a "standstill agreement" with him. Pakistan consented but India refused.

War of Kashmir 1947 The local population of Poonch began to press the Maharaja to accede to Pakistan. In August 1947, they held a massive demonstration to protest against the Maharaja's indecisiveness. The Maharaja panicked. He asked his Hindu paratroopers to open fire and within a matter of seconds, several hundred Muslims were killed. Rising up against this brutal action, a local barrister called Sardar Mohammad Ibrahim immediately set up the Azad Kashmir government and began to wage guerrilla warfare against the Maharaja. By October 1947, the war of Kashmir had begun in earnest. The Pathan tribesmen from the Noth West Frontier Province, wanting to avenge the deaths of their brothers, invaded the valley. On reaching the valley of Kashmir, they defeated the Maharaja's troops and reached the gates of Srinagar, the capital.

Maharaja's Coalition with India The Maharaja sensing his defeat took refuge in Jammu whence he appealed to India to send troops to halt the onslaught of the tribesmen. India agreed on the condition that Kashmir would accede to India. On October 26, 1947, the Maharaja acceded to India. Lord Mountbatten accepted the accession on behalf of India. On October 26, 1947, India began to airlift her troops to Srinagar and launched a full-scale attack on the tribesmen. Pakistan was stunned. Despite her scant military resources, Pakistan was prepared to send in her troops but the British General Gracey, Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army, was against it. Jinnah proposed an immediate ceasefire and later on a fair and free plebiscite in Jammu and Kashmir.

Kashmir Dispute and United Nations In January 1948, India took the dispute to the Security Council. There it accused Pakistan of aggression and demanded that Pakistan withdraw her tribesmen. But Pakistan held that the accession of Kashmir had been brought about by force. The government requested the Security Council to arrange a cease-fire and asked both the tribesmen and the Indian troops to withdraw so that a free impartial plebiscite could be held to ascertain the wishes of the people of Kashmir.

Indo-Pakistan War 1948 and United Nation's Involvement While the Kashmir issue was still on the table, the Indian troops launched a full-scale attack and drove the tribesmen right back to the Pakistani border. Pakistan rushed her regular troops into Kashmir and a full-scale war with India ensued. She took control of the Azad Kashmir Army. But the Security Council on August 13, 1948 called for an immediate ceasefire the withdrawal of all Pakistani and Indian troops and holding of plebiscite under United Nation's supervision. Both the Indian and Paksitani government accepted the resolution. In January 1949, the resolution began to be implemented. In July 1949, the ceasefire line was demarcated. Pakistan's side of Kashmir consisted of some parts of Jammu, Poonch, some areas of Western Kashmir, Gilgit and a great chunk of Ladakh territory near the Chinese border in the North. India kept the valley of Kashmir, Jammu and the remainder of Ladakh territory near the Tiber border. The cease-fire has remained in existence since 1949. No plebiscite has been held and thus the Kashmir issue still remains disputed and unresolved.

The 1965 War In April 1965, a clash between border patrols erupted into fighting in the Rann of Kutch, a sparsely inhabited region along the south-western Indo-Pakistan border. When the Indians withdrew, Pakistan claimed victory. Later full-scale hostilites erupted in September 1965, when India alleged that insurgents trained and supplied by Pakistan were operating in India-controlled Kashmir. Hostilities ceased three weaks later, following mediation efforts by the UN and interested countries. In January 1966, Indian and Pakistani representatives met in Tashkent, U.S.S.R., and agreed to attempt a peaceful settlement of Kashmir and their other differences.

The 1971 War Indo-Pakistani relations deteriorated again when civil war erupted in Pakistan, pitting the West Pakistan army against East Pakistanis demanding autonomy and independence. In December India invaded East Pakistan in support of the East Pakistani people. The Pakistani army surrendered at Dhaka and its army of more than 90,000 became India prisoners of war. East Pakistan became the independent country of Bangladesh on 6th December 1971. Following the 1971 Indo-Pakistan conflict, President Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi met in the mountain town of Shimla, India in July 1972. They agreed to a line of control in Kashmir resulting from the December 17, 1971 cease-fire, and endorsed the principle of settlement of bilateral disputes through peaceful means.

Indian Troops and Siachen Glacier 1984 India's nuclear test in 1974 generated great uncertainty in Pakistan and is generally acknowledged to have been the impetus for Pakistan's nuclear weapons development program. In 1983, the Pakistani and Indian governments accused each other of aiding separatists in their respective countries, i.e., Sikhs in India's Punjab state and Sindhis in Pakistan's Sindh province. In April 1984, tensions erupted after troops were deployed to the Siachen Glacier, a high-altitude desolate area close to the China border left undemarcated by the cease-fire agreement (Karachi Agreement) signed by Pakistan and India in 1949. Tensions diminished after Rajiv Gandhi became Prime Minister in November 1984 and after a group of Sikh hijackers was brought to trial by Pakistan in March 1985. In December 1985, President Zia and Prime Minister Gandhi pledged not to attack each other's nuclear facilities. In early 1986, the Indian and Pakistani governments began high-level talks to resolve the Siachen Glacier border dispute and to improve trade.

Kashmir Insurgency 1990 Bilateral tensions increased in early 1990, when Kashmiri militants began a compaign of violence against Indian Government authority in Jammu and Kashmir. Subsequent high-level bilateral meetings relieved the tensions between India and Pakistan, but relations worsened again after the destruction of the Ayodhya Masjid by Hindu extremists in December 1992 and terrorists bombings in Bombay in March 1993. Talks between the Foreign Secretaries of both countries in January 1994 resulted in deadlock.

Diplomatic Push 1996-97 In the last several years, the Indo-Pakistani relationship has veered sharply between rapprochement and conflict. After taking office in February 1997, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif moved to resume official dialogue with India. A number of meetings at the foreign secretary and Prime Ministerial level took place with positive atmospherics but little concrete progress. In a speech at the UN, Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif offered to open talks on a non-aggression pact with India, proposing that both nations strike a deal to restrain their nuclear and missile capabilities.

Effects of 9/11 on Kashmir If the world and the United States changed after September 11, the center of that change is the region where Pakistan is located. When it came to begin the war against terrorism Pakistan did not hesitate to do whatever it takes to fight against terrorism. United States of America appreciated the efforts of Pakistan which did not please India. So, India blamed Pakistan-based groups for the December 13, 2001 attack on the Indian Parliament. In reply, General Parvez Musharraf's speech of January 12, 2002 which even India's hawkish Home Minister Lal Krishna Advani termed four days later as "path-breaking", India was caught on the back foot.

National Kashmir Committee It is in this context that Pakistan launched a new political initiative on Kashmir to reaffirm its long standing policy of supporting the right of self-determination for the people of kashmir that is enshrined in United Nations resolutions, initially accepted even by India. Musharraf announced the formation of a National Kashmir Committee headed by a veteran Kashmiri politician, and its charter made clear the purposes behind the initiative. The challenge before the government is to promote confidence among the people in Pakistan and Kashmir regarding Pakistan's efforts to project the Kashmir cause as a popular and indigenous struggle internationally. Having addressed international concerns regarding terrorism and extremism in Musharraf's January 12 speech, the United States is now more receptive to Pakistan's plea and is anxious to see a dialogue on all the issues of Kashmir.

Peace in South Asia and the Kashmir Dispute Pakistan believes that the establishment of durable peace in South Asia hinges on the resolution of the Kashmir Dispute in light of the security Council resolutions and the wishes of the Kashmiri people. On March 17, 2004 Prime Minister Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali said the Kashmir dispute remains the core issue between India and Pakistan. The two South Asian nations have fought three wars, two of which were over the disputed kashmir region. In January this year, the two leaderships made a decision to open the dialogue process in a bid to resolve all disputes between the two sides.

The Dialogue Process Pakistan always showed seriousness and sincerity towards resolution of the core issue of Kashmir by adopting several Confidence Building Measures (CBMs). World community. time and again has advised India to decrease the number of its force in Occupied Kashmir and release illegally detained Kashmiri Leadership. India never hesitated from leveling baseless allegations against Pakistan of infiltration and also did not stop massive human rights violations in Kashmir. The need is to initiate vigorous efforts from both sides in resolving the Kashmir issue. The basic important dispute between the two countries is Kashmir issue and with its resolution all the other outstanding issues would be settled very easity. Prime Minister Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali said that Kashmir dispute should be resolved according to the United Nations resolution and with active participation of the Kashmiris.

Year 2005 - Road to Peace The Prime Minister said that there wre many difficulties on road to peace but emphasized the need to take measures to promote mutual trust and find new avenues for a peaceful resolution of the lingering Kashmir dispute. The first formal visit of a faction of the separatist All Parties Hurriyat Conference (APHC) and the Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF) to Pakistan occupied Kashmir (PoK) and subsequently, though unsanctioned by Indian authorities to Pakistan between June 2-16, 2005 was thus projected as a major event and development in the process of solving the "Kashmir Issue". Indeed the visit strongly reiterated the fact that the APHC continues to be a faithful Pakistani proxy. After his meeting with the President Musharraf, Mirwaiz Umer Farooq declared that We want Kashmir to be divided on geographical grounds. We don't wand Kashmir to lose its identity.... we support his [President Musharraf] approach. During their meeting with President Musharraf, the APHC leaders once again were assured full political, diplomatic and moral support.

This tour has been helpful in understanding the viewpoint of the Kashmiri leaders. Their quest for a free hand to decide their future is valid. They have been living under brutal Indian occupation since 1948. Despite promised justice by the UN 57 years ago, they have been denied their right of self-determination. It was in fact the denial of justice and unabated Indian State-terrorism perpetrated against Kashmir. The recent visit of the APHC leaders was a significant development, which can be termed as a milestone in the process of resolving the core dispute of Kashmir between Pakistan and India peacefully. We wish both the governments to show courage, boldness and flexibility in settling the issue.

FORIEGN POLICY OF PAKISTAN

PRINCIPLES OF PAKISTAN’S FOREIGN POLICY

Introduction

No country today can think of a life independent of other nations. Every country has to develop relations with other countries so as to meet its requirements in economical, industrial and technological fields. It is thus necessary for every country to formulate a sound foreign policy. Pakistan is an important third world country, in its developmental stage. It also has formulated her foreign policy keeping in mind its geography, politics and economics.

Definition of Foreign Policy

Foreign Policy can be defined as

Relations between sovereign states. It is a reflection of domestic politics and an interaction among sovereign states. It indicates the principles and preferences on which a country wants to establish relations with another country.

Pakistan's Foreign Policy in Light of Quaid-e-Azam's Words

The father of the nation, Quaid-e-Azam defined Foreign Policy towards other countries of the world in 1948, as follows

Our Foreign Policy is one of friendliness and good-will towards all the nations of the world. We do not cherish aggressive designs against any country or nation. We believe in the policy of honesty and fair play in national and international dealings and are prepared to make our utmost contribution to the promotion of peace and prosperity among the nations of the world. Pakistan will never be found lacking in extending its material and moral support to the oppressed and suppressed peoples of the world and in upholding the principles of the United Nations Charter.

Basic Goals of Pakistan's Foreign Policy

1. Maintenance of territorial integrity.

2. Maintenance of its political independence.

3. Acceleration of social and economic development.

4. Strengthening its place on the globe.

5. Keeping cordial and friendly relations with all countries.

Guiding Principles of Pakistan's Foreign Policy

Following are the basic principles of Pakistan's Foreign Policy:

1. Protection of Freedom and Sovereignity

Pakistan came into being after great sacrifices of million of Muslims. Like any other country, she also considers with deep regard the need for preservation of its independence and does not allow any country to harm its freedom. Therefore, the principle of protection of independence and sovereignity is the corner stone of Pakistan's Foreign Policy.

2. Cordial Relations with Muslim Countries

Pakistan always tries to establish cordial and friendly relations with Muslim countries. It has always moved its concern against Israel, India and U.S.S.R capturing Palestine, Kashmir and Afghanistan respectively. She has shouldered high responsibilities and used her influence for safeguarding the rights of the Muslims. Pakistan is also an active member of the Islamic Conference.

3. Non-Interference in Internal Affairs of Other Countries

Pakistan has sought to establish normal and friendly relations with all countries especially in neighbouring countries, on the basis of universally acknowledge the principle of national sovereignity, non use of force, non-interference in the internal affairs of states.

4. Implementation of U.N Charter

Pakistan's policy is to act upon UN charter and to support all moves by the UN to implement it. Pakistan has been the member of UN since the year of its birth.

5. Promotion of World Peace

Pakistan's policy is to promote peace among nations. It has no aggressive designs against any country. Neither does it support any such action. Pakistan has always held that the international disputes should be settled through negotiations rather than non-battlefield.

6. Non-Alignment

Pakistan follows the policy of Non-Alignment i.e. to keep away from alignment with any big power bloc, and avoids taking sides in the cold war. It has also given up its association with SEATO and CENTO and was included in NAM in 1979.

7. Support for Self-Determination and Condemnation of Racial Discrimination

Pakistan is a stomach supporter of the right of self-determination and has been in the fore front of efforts to eliminate colonialism and racism. It has advocated the right of self-determination of Kashmir.

8. Nuclear Non-Proliferation and Disarmament

Pakistan is deeply conscious of the fact that international peace and security cannot be achieved and sustained in the world with arms. Disarmament is the imperative condition for truly durable peace in the world. Pakistan has a vital stake in promotion of disarmament both in the nuclear and conventional fields. It is included in the principles of its foreign policy that a collective endeavour by countries at the regional level to promote disarmament and enhance security at the lowest possible level of armaments is an indispensable result to their advocacy of global disarmament.

9. Member of International Organization

Pakistan had become the member of the British Commonwealth with the time of its establishment. In addition it is the member of United Nations (U.N), Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), Organization of Islamic Conference (OIC), Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO), South Asian Association for Regional Co-operation (SAARC), Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN), and D-Eight. Being a member of International Organizations the objectives of Pakistan are to struggle for world peace, to unify the Muslim countries and to promote regional co-operation.

Conclusion

The guiding principles of Pakistan's Foreign Policy are rooted in the country's Islamic ideology, its rich cultural heritage and historical experience. As an Islamic and non-aligned country, Pakistan supports Islamic causes and firmly upholds the above mentioned principles, which hold out the promise of a just and equitable world order in which nations can live in peace and security.

PAKISTAN’S RELATIONS WITH UNITED STATES

Pakistan's relationship with the West, particularly the United States, was of major importance. Geographically the USA is not a neighbour of Pakistan, but interests of politician, Bureaucracy and Generals have brought both the countries close together. The United States and Pakistan established diplomatic relations in 1947.

Liaquat Ali Khan's Visit 1950 In 1949, the US Secretary of State extended invitation to the Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan for a visit to the United States. The Prime Minister visited USA at the end of 1950. During his visit he tried to identify Pakistan as more near to the West and Islam more near to Christianity than to Communism and begged for economic and military aid.

SEATO and CENTO 1954-55 Pakistan's relations with the United States developed against the backdrop of the Cold War. Pakistan's strategic geographic position made it a valuable partner in Western alliance systems to contain the spread of communism. In 1954 Pakistan signed a Mutual Defence Agreement with the United States and subsequently became a member of SEATO (South East Asian Treaty Organization) and CENTO (Central Treaty Organization). The U.S. agreement to provide economic and military assistance to Pakistan and the latter's partnership in the Baghdad Pact CENTO and SEATO strengthened relations between the two nations.

Pakistan as Washington's Closest Ally Pakistan also used as a base for United States military reconnaissance flights over Soviet territory. During the cold War years, Pakistan was considered one of Washington's closest allies in Asia. Pakistan, in return, received large amounts of economic and military assistance.

1965 and 1971 Wars and United States The United States suspended military assistance to both the countries involved in the conflict of 1965. However, the U.S. suspension of military assistance during the 1965 Indo-Pakistan was generated a widespread feeling in Pakistan that the United States was not a reliable ally. The United States embargo on arms shipments to Pakistan remained in place during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 and was not lifted until 1975. Gradually, relations improved and arms sales were renewed in 1975. United States-Pakistani relations preceding the 1971 was were characterized by poor communication and much confusion.

Withdraw from SEATO and CENTO Following the lost of East Wing, Pakistan withdrew from SEATO. Pakistan's military links with the West continued to decline throughout Bhutto's tenure in power and into the first years of the Zia regime. CENTO was disbanded following the fall of the Shah of Iran in March 1979, and Pakistan then joined the Nonaligned Movement. Zia also continued Bhutto's policy of developing Pakistan's nuclear capability.

Cease of Economic Assistance Developing Pakistan's nuclear capability policy had originated as a defensive measure in reaction to India's explosion of a nuclear device in 1974. In April 1979, President Jimmy Carter cut off economic assistance to Pakistan, except for food assistance, as required under the Symington Amendment to the Foreign Assistance act of 1961. This amendment called for ceasing economic assistance to those countries that had imported uranium-enrichment technology. Relations between the United States and Pakistan were further strained in November 1979 when protesters sacked the United States embassy i Islamabad, resulting in the death of four persons. The violence had been sparked by a false report that the United States was involved in a fire at the Grand Masjid in Macca.

Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan and American's Changed Policy The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in December 1979 revived the close relationship between Pakistan and the United States. Initially, however the President Carter lifted the ban on aid to Pakistan and in January 1980, offered a package of US$ 400 million economic and military aid to Pakistan which was rejected by General Zia-ul-Haq, who termed it"peanuts". Under President Ronald Reagan, the United States agreed in 1981 to provide US$ 3.2 billion to Pakistan aimed at helping Pakistan deal with the heightened threat to security in the region and its economic development needs. However, although the Symington Amendment was waived, the amount was subject to the annual appropriation process. A second economic and military assistance program was announced in April 1986, this time for over US$ 4.0 billion, with 57 percent for economic assistance. With U.S, assistance in the largest covert operation in history - Pakistan armed and supplied anti-Soviet fighters in Afghanistan, eventually defeating the Soviets, who withdrew in 1988.

Pressler Amendment 1985 On October 01, 1990 however, the United States suspended all military assistance and new economic aid to Pakistan under the Pressler Amendment, which required that the President certify annually that Pakistan "does not possess a nuclear explosive device". For several years, the United States president, with Pakistan's assurances that its nuclear program was for peaceful uses, was able to make this certification. However, with the Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan and the end of the Cold War, the United States took a harder position on the nuclear weapons issue and President George Bush refused to make the certification required under the Pressler Amendment, and assistance to Pakistan was subsequently terminated. Further, the supply of F-16 jet fighters was also stopped for which Pakistan had already paid $650 million to the US.

Sanctions on alleged transfer of M-11 missiles Pakistan's retention of the nuclear option became a defining issue in its relations with the United States. USA another action in regard of the nuclear issue occurred in September 1993 when the US imposed sanctions against China and Pakistan on alleged transfer of M-11 missiles to Pakistan labeling it a violation of the MTCR (Missile Technology Control Regime).

Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto's Visit to US 1995 In the background of the number of unresolved issues including nuclear non-proliferation, delivery of F-16s, alleged supply of M-11 missiles by China, Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto paid an official visit to Washington in April 1995. The joint statement failed to mention any solution to these issues. Pakistan and US signed in Washington Memoranda of Unterstanding providing for $6 million of investment by American companies in Pakistan.

Brown Amendment 1995 According to US officials the Pressler Amendment was a hurdle in the normalization of Pak-US relations. As a result, on 21st September 1995, the US Senate under Clinton Administration passed the Brown Amendment to lessen its negative impact. The amendment opened the way for 28 undelivered F-16s to be sold to a third country and the money refunded to Pakistan, release of $368 million worth defense equipment, restoration of corporation in such areas as narcotics control, international terrorism, peace keeping and the availability of US insurance cover for investment made in Pakistan.

Nuclear Weapon Tests 1998 India's decision to conduct nuclear tests in May 1998 and Pakistan's matching response set back U.S. relations in the region. President Clinton's visit to Pakistan scheduled for the first quarter of 1998 was postponed and under the Glenn Amendment, sanctions restricted the provisions of credits, military sales, economic assistance and loans to the government. An intensive dialogue on nuclear nonproliferation and security issues was initiated with discussion focusing on CTBT (Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty) signature and ratification. Pakistan declared that it would sign the treaty only when India did so first.

Nawaz Sharif's Meeting with President Clinton 1998 The relations improved a little after the former Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif's meeting with President Clinton in Washington in December 1998. As a consequence, the economic sanctions imposed by the US after the Nuclear Test were eased. A notable achievement was a resolution of the F-16s issue and accordingly US released $436.7 million to Pakistan as a claim in connection with the F-16 aircrafts. But the October 1999 overthrow of the democratically elected Sharif government triggered an additional layer of sanctions with include restrictions on foreign military financing and economic assistance. U.S. Government assistance to Pakistan was limited mainly to refugee and counter-narcotics assistance.

September 11 attacks and Pakistan-US relationship History changed its course on September 11, 2001 when deadly terrorists attacks destroyed World Trade Centre at New York and severally damaged the Pentagon in Washington. More than 5,000 people were killed in this attack. The 9/11 incidence gave a new direction to the global politics. The Pakistan-US relationship changed significantly when Pakistan moved decisively to ally itself with the United States in its war against Osama Bin Laden and Al-Qaeda. It gave the U.S. a number of military airports and bases for its attack on Afghanistan. It has arrested over five hundred Al-Qaeda members and handed them over to the United States. In response the United States stepped up its economic assistance to Pakistan providing debt relief.

President Musharraf's Visit to US 2003 President Musharraf visited United States in June 2003 and both Presidents negotiated on 24th June 2003 at Camp David. Afterwards President Bush announced to provide Pakistan $3 billion economic and military aid and plainly refused about the delivery of F-16s. The Bush Administration expressed its desire that "an enhanced and enduring relationship" with Pakistan would continue to thrive in the years ahead. Continuing interest of President Bush and personal diplomacy of Secretary Powell to defuse border tension between Pakistan and India also reflected the US desire for enhanced constructive engagement in the region.

Pakistan as major Non-NATO ally In March, 2004 the United States designated Pakistan as a "major Non-NATO ally". This move will significantly enhance military cooperation between the two countries and enable Pakistan to purchase modern military equipment, satellite technology, depleted uranium ammunition and enhance cooperation in defense sector, research and development with US.

PAKISTAN’S RELATIONS WITH INDIA

Since partition of the sub-continent in 1947, relations between Pakistan and India have been characterized by rivalry and suspicion. The animosity has its roots in religion and history, and is epitomized by the long-running conflict over the state of Jammu and Kashmir.

Historical Background The Indian Sub Continent was partitioned into Hindu-dominated India and the newly created Muslim state of Pakistan after India's independence from Great Britain in 1947. Severe rioting and population movement ensued and an estimated half a million people were killed in communal violence. About a million people were left homeless. Since partition, the territory of Jammu and Kashmir has remained in dispute with Pakistan and India both holding sectors.

First Indo-Pakistan War 1947-49 At the time of partition, the princely state of Kashmir, though ruled by a Hindu Maharaja, had an overwhelmingly Muslim population. When the Maharaja hesitated in acceding to either Pakistan or India in 1947, some of his Muslim subjects, aided by tribesmen from Pakistan, revolted in favor of joining Pakistan. The first Indo-Pakistan war started after armed tribesmen from Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province invaded Kashmir in October 1947. Besieged both by a revolt n his state and by the invasion, the Maharaja requested armed assistance from the Government of India. In return he acceded to India, handling over powers of defense, communication and foreign affairs. Both India and Pakistan agreed that the accession would be confirmed by a referendum once hostilities had ceased. In May 1948, the regular Pakistani army was called upon to protect Pakistan's borders. Fighting continued throughout the year between Pakistani irregular troops and the Indian army. The war ended on 1st January 1949 when a ceasefire was arranged by the United Nations which recommended that both India and Pakistan should adhere to their commitment to hold a referendum in the state. A ceasefire line was established where the two sides stopped fighting and a UN peacekeeping force established. The referendum, however has never been held.

The 1965 War In April 1965, a clash between border patrols erupted into fighting in the Rann of Kutch, a sparsely inhabited region along the south-western Indo-Pakistan border. When the Indians withdrew, Pakistan claimed victory. Later full-scale hostilites erupted in September 1965, when India alleged that insurgents trained and supplied by Pakistan were operating in India-controlled Kashmir. Hostilities ceased three weaks later, following mediation efforts by the UN and interested countries. In January 1966, Indian and Pakistani representatives met in Tashkent, U.S.S.R., and agreed to attempt a peaceful settlement of Kashmir and their other differences.

The 1971 War Indo-Pakistani relations deteriorated again when civil war erupted in Pakistan, pitting the West Pakistan army against East Pakistanis demanding autonomy and independence. In December India invaded East Pakistan in support of the East Pakistani people. The Pakistani army surrendered at Dhaka and its army of more than 90,000 became India prisoners of war. East Pakistan became the independent country of Bangladesh on 6th December 1971.

Indian Troops and Siachen Glacier 1984 India's nuclear test in 1974 generated great uncertainty in Pakistan and is generally acknowledged to have been the impetus for Pakistan's nuclear weapons development program. In 1983, the Pakistani and Indian governments accused each other of aiding separatists in their respective countries, i.e., Sikhs in India's Punjab state and Sindhis in Pakistan's Sindh province. In April 1984, tensions erupted after troops were deployed to the Siachen Glacier, a high-altitude desolate area close to the China border left undemarcated by the cease-fire agreement (Karachi Agreement) signed by Pakistan and India in 1949. Tensions diminished after Rajiv Gandhi became Prime Minister in November 1984 and after a group of Sikh hijackers was brought to trial by Pakistan in March 1985. In December 1985, President Zia and Prime Minister Gandhi pledged not to attack each other's nuclear facilities. In early 1986, the Indian and Pakistani governments began high-level talks to resolve the Siachen Glacier border dispute and to improve trade.

Kashmir Insurgency 1990 Bilateral tensions increased in early 1990, when Kashmiri militants began a compaign of violence against Indian Government authority in Jammu and Kashmir. Subsequent high-level bilateral meetings relieved the tensions between India and Pakistan, but relations worsened again after the destruction of the Ayodhya Masjid by Hindu extremists in December 1992 and terrorists bombings in Bombay in March 1993. Talks between the Foreign Secretaries of both countries in January 1994 resulted in deadlock.

Diplomatic Push 1996-97 In the last several years, the Indo-Pakistani relationship has veered sharply between rapprochement and conflict. After taking office in February 1997, Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif moved to resume official dialogue with India. A number of meetings at the foreign secretary and Prime Ministerial level took place with positive atmospherics but little concrete progress. In a speech at the UN, Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif offered to open talks on a non-aggression pact with India, proposing that both nations strike a deal to restrain their nuclear and missile capabilities.

Nuclear Rivalry 1998 The arms race between the rivals escalated dramatically in the 1990s. In May 1998, India conducted underground nuclear tests in the western desert state of Rajasthan near the border with Pakistan. In response, Pakistan conducted six tests in Balochistan. In the same year, Pakistan test its longest range missile, the 1,500 km (932 mile) Ghauri missile, named after the 12th Century Muslim warrior who conquered part of India. Both sides were heavily criticized by the international community for the tests as fears of a nuclear confrontation grew. The United States ordered sanctions against both countries, freezing more than $20bn of aid, loans and trade. Japan ordered a block on about $1bn of aid loans. Several European countries followed suit, and the G-8 governments imposed a ban on non-humanitarian loans to India and Pakistan. The UN Security Council condemned India and Pakistan for carrying out nuclear tests and urged the two nations to stop all nuclear weapons programmes.

Indian Prime Minister Atal Vajpayee Visit to Pakistan 1999 The relationship improved markedly when Indian Prime Minister Vajpayee traveled to Lahore for a summit with Sharif in February 1999. There was considerable hope that the meeting could lead to a breakthrough. They signed the Lahore accord pledging again to "intensify their efforts to resolve all issues, including the issue of Jammu and Kashmir."

Kargil Conflict 1999 unfortunately, in May 1999 India launched air strikes against Pakistani backed forces that had infiltrated into the mountains in Indian-administrated Kashmir, north of Kargil. Pakistan responded by occupying positions on the Indian side of the Line of Control in the remote, mountainous area of Kashmir near Kargil threatening the ability of India to supply its forces on Siachen Glacier. By early summer, serious fighting flared in the Kargil sector. The infiltrators withdrew following a meeting between Prime Minister Sharif and President Bill Clinton in July. Relations between India nad Pakistan have since been particularly strained, especially since the October 12, 1999 coup in Islamabad.

The Brink of War 2001 Tension along the ceasefire lined continued. The worst fighting for more than a year broke out in October as India, which continued to condemn Pakistan for cross-border terrorism, started shelling Pakistani military positions. October saw a devastating attack on the Kashmiri assembly in Srinagar in which 38 people were killed. After the attack, the Chief Minister of Indian-administrated Kashmir, Farooque Abdullah called on Indian Government to launch a war against militant training camps across the border in Pakistan. On 13th December, an armed attack on the Indian Parliament in Delhi left 14 people dead. India again blamed Pakistani-backed Kashmiri militants. The attack led to a dramatic build-up of troops along the Indo-Pakistan border, military exchanges and raised fears of a wider conflict. Rail and bus services between the two countries were also blocked.

Relaxation of Tension 2003 A relaxation of tension began in 2003, when then Indian Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee called for a dialogue. Rail and bus services between the two countries resumed, and the two countries agreed to a ceasefire in Kashmir.

Summit Talks 2004 Twelfth SAARC Summit was held in Islamabad in January 2004. On this occasion President Parvez Musharraf met Indian Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee on 5th January 2004. In this summit talk India and Pakistan resumed comprehensive discussions with an agenda the included the Kashmir problem, confidence-building measures, and ways to provide security against terrorism.

No War Pact 2004 These comprehensive consultations have steadily built up trust, resulting in agreements to continue the suspension of nuclear tests, to give prior notification of missile tests, and to seek a peaceful resolution of the Kashmir problem. On June 20, 2004, both countries signed "No War Pact" and agreed to extend a nuclear testing ban and to set up a hotline between their foreign secretaries aimed at preventing misunderstandings that might lead to a nuclear war.

Musharraf's Unofficial Visit to India 2005 In April 2005 President Parvez Musharraf and Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh agreed on various new confidence-building measures between the two nations. Their talks, held during Mr. Musharraf's unofficial visit to India on April 17, produced agreement, for example, on the passage of trucks for commercial purposes over Kashmir's Line of Control, or ceasefire line. This is expected to greatly help ease tensions between the countries. The improvement of relations between India and Pakistan still involves uncertain factors such as the activities of Islamic extremists, but efforts should be stepped up so that the latest summit can serve as a favorable tail wind for accelerating the thaw between the two nations.

LANGUAGES

URDU- NATIONAL LANGUAGE

Introduction

Language is the only media by which one can express his ideas and feelings. It plays a vital role in building the character of an individual as well as a nation. Languages bring closer each other and it creates a sense of harmony among the people.

Urdu - National Language of Pakistan

After independence Quaid-e-Azam said in clear cut words that the National Language of Pakistan would be Urdu. He said

Let me make it clear that the National Language of Pakistan is going to be Urdu and no other language. Without one state language no nation can remain tied up solidly together.

Evolution of Urdu

Urdu evolved over a period of centuried by cultural between local people of north of Sub Continent and Muslims of Arabia, Iran and Turkey. The base of this language is Prakrit, an Aryan language. The script of Urdu is modified form of Persian. Urdu is a word of Turkish language and its literal meaning is camp.

Progress of Urdu Language

Due to the efforts of poets and writers during different periods of history. Urdu progressed well and reached almost all parts of the sub-continent in the 16th Century. The Muslims, from time to time, brought about changes and amendments in it to make it more simple and easy to understand according to their needs and requirements.

After the emergence of Pakistan, a great deal of work has been done for the progress of Urdu language. The Urdu language has crossed its evolutionary stages after the Independence and is now on its way to the road of progress and development. Each Pakistani feels proud of speaking, reading and writing Urdu. Most of our national leaders, while visiting other countries, deliver their speeches in Urdu language which enhances its prestige on the International level. Several Committees have been formed for the level. Being the national language of the country, it is the binding force between different parts of Pakistan.

Qualities of Urdu

1. Great Power of Assimilation

The splendour of Urdu is Turkish and its charm is Persian in its base. The vitality of Urdu lies in its ability to adopt words from other languages in such a way as if they originally belonged to it. The chief reason for its country wide popularity was its power of Assimilation. According to Sir Syed Ahmed Khan

Still now Urdu has great affinity for many other words and ideas which increases its beauty.

2. Source of National Identity

National language is the identity of a nation. When we are abroad we are identified as Pakistani because of our national language. That is why, every nation gives out respect and importance to national language.

Rich Treasure of Prose and Poetry

The Urdu language possesses a very valuable treasure of poetry and prose. The poets and writers have contributed their most in its development. Maulana Shibli Nomani, Maulana Hali, Deputy Nazir Ahmed, Mirza Ghalib, Amir Khusro and many others adopted this language in their poetry and writings. Sir Syed wrote for the re-awakening of the Muslims of Sub Continent. According to Abdul Haque

It is Sir Syed due to whom Urdu has made such a great progress within a period of only one century.

Urdu - An Important Part of Our Cultural Heritage

Urdu grew in popularity and by the later Mughal Period and the advent of the British, it had been adopted by the Muslims and the Hindus alike. It would not be wrong to say if it is said that:

Urdu is a part of our Cultural Heritage

Importance of Urdu in National Life

Certain points which express the importance of Urdu in national life are given below:

1. Means of Brotherhood and Unity

People of Pakistan are one nation, therefore their thinking, aims and objectives are common. Their progress and prosperity depends upon their unity and brotherhood. An important factor for achieving this unity and brotherhood is Urdu.

2. Source of Expression

Urdu has become a source of expression, feeling, thoughts and aspiration. People of two different areas can easily understood each other ideas and thoughts by Urdu.

3. Means of Communication and Co-ordination

Urdu serves as a means of communication and is a binding force between all the four province of Pakistan. People living in different provinces realize that in spite of speaking different languages, they are joined together by one national language which is the heritage of all.

4. Medium of Instruction

Urdu language is the medium of instruction in most of the educational instituations of Pakistan. History, Islamic Studies, Political Science and other subjects are taught upto M.A level in Urdu. Lectures on Islamic education and religion are also delivered in Urdu throughout Pakistan.

Conclusion

Being the national language of the country it is the binding force in different parts of Pakistan. The officers have adopted Urdu language in their official work and the Government has published a dictionary contained Urdu terms for the office work. The Urdu Development Board and "Anjuman-e-Taraqi-e-Urdu" are trying to give Urdu a place in society and it is hope that Urdu would find its place in society within short period of time.

REGIONAL LANGUAGES OF PAKISTAN

Pakistan is a multi-lingual country. No less than twenty-four languages and dialects are spoken by the people of Pakistan, but mainly include five regional languages Punjabi, Sindhi, Balochi, Pushto, Brahvi and Kashmiri. These languages are rich in literature, poetry, folksongs and spiritual sayings of their respective saints and contribute greatly to the culture of Pakistan.

The regional languages though distinct from one another in their forms, dialects and expressions of thoughts have several common factors in them. They cultivate in them love, respect and a firm adherence to the Pakistan Ideology. The regional languages of Pakistan are:

1. Punjabi

Punjabi is the local language of the province of the Punjab which is the biggest province of Pakistan with regard to population and development. It has its links with the Aryan language Prakrit. Before partition it was spoken in Delhi, Dhirpur, Peshawar and Jammu too. However as time rolled on the vocabulary of Punjabi language became a mixture of Persian, Arabic and Turkish words. It has different dialects in different parts of Punjabi like Saraiki and Potohari but the basic language remains the same.

Various Names

Punjabi is a very simple language and easy to understand. It was given various names during different periods of history. Famous historian Masoodi called it Multani while Al-Beruni used the name of Al-Hindi for it. The famous Sikh religious leader Baba Guru Nanak gave it the name of Zaban-e-Jattan. In the NWFP it was known as Hindko. In the NWFP it was known as Hindko. Hafiz Barkhurdar was the first person to use the name of Punjabi for this language in the first half of 17th century in his book entitled Muftah-ul-Fiqah. Maulvi Kamal-ud-Din also used this name for this language in his selected works.

Various forms of Lyric and Narrative Poetry

Punjabi is rich in mystical and romantic poetry. The highly imaginative and artistic exquisite literature, mostly in verse has two forms one is "Lyric Poetry" which includes Bait, Kafi, Si-harfi, Bara Mah and Satwara the other one i "Narrative Poetry" which is composed of various rhythms and meters. Examples are Qissa Noor Namah, Gulzar, Jang Nama and Vaar.

Famous Punjabi Poets

Some of the famous poets of Punjabi language are:


 * Baba Farid Shakar Ganj Baksh


 * Sheikh Ibrahim Farid Shani


 * Madholal Hussein


 * Sultan Bahu


 * Bullay Shah


 * Ali Haider


 * Waris Shah

Progress of Punjabi Language

Before partition Punjabi was spoken and understood in the eastern part of the Punjab. After Independence concrete steps were taken for the promotion and development of this language which made it a popular language in other parts of the province. The Government is still making efforts for the progress of Punjabi language and extending support to those institutions which are striving for its development. A present the Punjabi literature is taugth upto M.A. level in Pakistan.

2. Sindhi

Sindhi is one of the important regional languages of Pakistan. It appears that Sindhi was spoken in the Indus Delta from time immemorial. It is said that the language of the people of Moen-jo-Daro contained elements of the present Sindhi language.

The origin of this language is not exactly known. However travelers like Al-Beruni have told us about the original script of the language. "Chach Nama" being an authentic document proves that the dialect of the Sindhi language was the same in the 12th century, as it is today. With the advent and influence of Arabs in the Sub Continent Sindhi changed its form and adopted maximum words of Arabic and also of Persian and Turkish.

Way of Writing

In the beginning Sindhi was written in "Marwari" and "Arz Nagari"' way of writing. With the advent and influence of Arabs in the subcontinent this way of writing was subsequently changed into Arabic and adopted maximum words of Arabic and also of Persian and Turkish.

Steps Taken to Develop Sindhi

Various steps have been taken to develop Urdu. Organizations like "Sindhi Literacy Board" and "Bazm-e-Talib-ul-Maula" etc were set up. Several newspapers published in Sindhi, such as Ibrat, Naw-i-Sind and Khadim-I-Watan besides a number of Weeklies.

Famous Sindhi Poets

Some of famous Sindhi Poets are


 * Shah Abdul Latif Bhittai


 * Sachal Sarmast


 * Makhdoom Noor


 * Shah Inayat


 * Bedil


 * Sabit Ali Shah


 * Kazi Kazah

3. Balochi

Balochi is the regional language of Balochistan. It is the least developed of all the regional languages. It was spread by Balochi tribal migrated from Iran.

The history of Balochi literature may be divided into four periods:

1. Early Medieval Period - 1430 to 1600

2. Later Medieval Period - 1600 to 1850

3. Modern Period - 1850 to 1930

4. Contemporary Period - 1930 up to date

Literature produced by earlier poets has no record as it is preserved traditionally in the memories of the people. No newspapers or books were published in Balochi up till 1940. After partition, however Balochi literature received a little boost due to the efforts made by many associations and by the establishment of T.V stations. At present, Balochi literature is on the road to development.

Types of Balochi

There are two types of Balochi namely:

1. Sulemani

2. Makrani

Famous Literacy Figures and Poets of Balochi

Some of the most literacy figures are:


 * Azad Jamaldini


 * Ulfat Naseem


 * Abdul Qadir Shahwani


 * Malik Mohammad Ramzan


 * Mir Aaqil Maingal

Well known poets of Balochi language are


 * Jam Darag


 * Shah Murid


 * Shahdad

Progress of Balochi Language

The Balochi literature was on the verge of decline before partition. After partition, however it received little boost when Radio Pakistan, Karachi began its broadcast in Balochi language. Balochi programmes were relayed from Radio Pakistan Karachi which enhanced the developmental process of Balochi language.

Balochi Literary Association

The Balochi literary Association was set up which published many magazines and articles in Balochi language. A weekly magazine known as "Nan Kessan" was published. A monthly known as "Olassis" was also published.

Quetta Television Station

With the establishment of Quetta Television Station the Balochi language has received great fillip. Atta Shah is a famous Balochi poet of Pakistan. Ishaq Shamim is another famous poet of Balochi language whose poem "Dulhan" is very popular. The renowned politician Gul Khan Naseer is also considered a good poet of Balochi language. Balochi prose has also developed a great deal after partition. Translation of the Bible has also been published in Balochi language.

4. Pushto

Pushto is the regional language of the N.W.F.P and tribal areas. It belongs to the East Iranian group of languages and contains many Persian, Arabic, Greek and Pehlevi words.

Famous Pushto Poets

Some of the well known poets of Pushto language are:


 * Amir Karoro


 * Khushal Khan Khatak


 * Rehman Baba


 * Sher Shah Soori


 * Saif ullah


 * Kazim Kazim

Steps Taken to Develop Pushto

Although Pushto is an old language but its literature is comparatively new one. After independence Pushto literature received a great boost.

The services rendered by the Pushto poets and writers in the freedom struggle, in fact contributed a great deal towards the promotion of Pushto literature.

Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum worked very hard to create political awareness in the people of N.W.F.P. The Islamic College, Peshawar which became the citadel of freedom movement in N.W.F.P was established because of his dedicated services. Peshawar University was established after three years of Independence.

An academy for the promotion of Pushto literature was set up under the supervision of the Government. The Pushto academy was set up in 1954 and Maulana Abdul Qadir (Alig) was appointed as its Director. This academy prepared Pushto dictionary.

5. Brahvi

Brahvi is the next spoken language of Balochistan. It fact it is said to be spoken by a greater number of people than Balochi. The Brahvi language is said to be a member of Dravidian family of languages. It has borrowed heavily from Sindhi, Persian, Arabic and English but remains in an unexplained isolation among the Indo-Iran dialects.

Brahvi literature has a vast treasure of folklores. It's script has borrowed much from Pushto script. Malik Dad was a great poet and learned person of Brahvi language.

6. Kashmiri

Kashmiri is the language of the people of inhabitting the occupied Kashmir and Azad Kashmir. This language has been derived from Sanskrit. Kashmiri is generally spoken in Muslim families of the valley. It contains many Turkish, Arabic and Persian words and is written in the Persian Script.

Kashmiri like all the regional languages of Pakistan had its early literature flowered in the form of poetry, which began with the composition of folk songs and ballads.

Kashmiri Literary Figures

Famous authors of Kashmiri language are:


 * Sh. Nooruddin


 * Khatoon Lillah Anifa


 * Baba Nasiruddin


 * Ghani

Conclusion

The regional languages of Pakistan - Punjabi, Sindhi, Balochi, Pushto, Brahvi are the most modern Pakistani languages. The have several common feature and their literature bears the same eternal message for mankind. Government has been doing its best to develop the regional languages.

PAKISTAN MOVEMENT

NEED FOR A SEPARATE HOMELAND

Hindus and Muslims had lived peacefully together in India for centuries, but after the British invasion in South Asia and their undue support to Hindus, life became very difficult for Indian Muslims. In fact, the Muslims were a separate nation who always adhered to their religious identity. The British and the Hindus in spite of their great efforts could not put a wedge into the Muslim unity and their love for the national character. The creation of Pakistan owes much to this feeling of adherence to their national image and religious identity.

The Muslims of Indo Pak Sub Continent demanded a separate homeland on the following grounds.

1. Desire to establish an Islamic State

Islam is a complete code of life for the Muslims and they are eager to implement it in their personal and collective life. Islamic code of Life or Islamic Ideology cannot be implemented until a pure Islamic Society free from all other unIslamic influences is established. The desire to establish an Islamic State was also one of the factors to demand a separate homeland.

2. Two Nation Theory

The Two Nation Theory played an important role for demanding a separate homeland according to which Hindus and Muslims are the two nations and therefore they cannot live together. Quaid-e-Azam once said,

Hindus and Muslims though living in the same towns and villages had never been blended into one nation. They were always two separate entities.

So the Muslims should have a separate State where they could lead their individual and collective life in accordance with the Islamic principles.

3. Historical Collusion

Hindu and Muslim historical collusion started when Muhammad Bin Qasim, defeating Raja Dahir, founded Islamic government in the subcontinent. Many battles were fought between Hindus and Muslims under Muslim Rule. The historical collusion continued also during the British Regime. Hindus, cooperating with British, tried to diminish Muslim culture and their way of life but they remained futile. The future of Muslims was obvious in such condition; therefore they decided to demand for the separate homeland.

4. Hindus and British

Since the British snatched power from Muslims, they were doubtful about the faithfulness of Muslims. So, Hindus and British joined hands to destroy the Muslims morally, socially, economically and politically. They reserved all higher civil, judicial and military appointments for British only while Muslims were debarred from all official positions. The Islamic educational system was replaced by British one. Then Muslims were forced to change their religion to Christianity and were compelled to send their children to co educational institutes and abandon purdha. This was the reason that Muslims became fed up with both British and Hindus and decided to have a separate homeland.

5. British Parliamentary System

Indian National Congress demanded the British Parliamentary system of government in India which meant majority rule. The implementation of this simply meant the Hindus slavery of Muslims since they were in majority. This was the reason that Muslims stressed on separate electorates and got it accepted. Separate electorate was the first brick in the foundation of demand for separate homeland.

6. Shuddi and Sangathan Movement

Hindu Muslim Unity evaporated in the year after the Khilafat Movement and Hindu Muslim Riots began. The poison of differences between the two nations aggravated with the passage of time. The differences reached to the peak when Shuddhi and Sangathan movements began. The Shuddhi Movement aimed at the mass conversion of certain backward groups of Muslims into Hindus by force whereas the Sangathan Programme sought to organize the Hindus into a Militant force to flight with the Muslims.

7. Activities of Maha Sabha

Maha Sabha was established in 1900. It was a non political party until the Shuddhi and Sangathan Movement started. These movements motivated Maha Sabha to be involved in politics. It proved to be the worst enemy of Muslims. The party declared Muslims as outsiders and said that Muslims have no relation with India. If they want to leave it then they could leave it happily but if they want to leave it then they could leave it happily but if they want to live in India, they will have to accept Hindu Mut. So it was impossible for Hindus and Muslims to live in a country together.

8. Protection of Urdu Language

Urdu was considered to be the language of Muslims in the subcontinent. In 1867, the Hindu-Urdu controversy began with some outstanding Hindus of Banaras demanding replacements of Urdu by Hindi as the court language. The supporters of Hindi claimed for it a national status whereas the Muslims hotly denied it. As the controversy spread, the two languages became more and more exclusive. Muslims got very disappointed when in April 1900 UP Governor Sir Antony Mac Donnell gave Hindi the status of National language with Urdu. That's why Muslims felt the need to set a political party. Then after a detailed discussion at last All India Muslim League was established in 1906. Maulvi Abdul Haque (1870-1961) has rightly said, Urdu Language placed the first brick in the foundation of Pakistan. It is a reality that it was one of the major reasons for demanding a separate country.

9. Protection of Muslim Culture

Hindus, with the consent of British during the Congress Ministries, burnt and looted the properties and houses of Muslims, Moreover, the signs of Muslims, past glory were damaged. Educational Syllabus was changed. Urdu was replaced by Hindi and the Muslim students were forced to worship statues of Gandhi in their schools. The Muslims of India, therefore, decided that the Muslim culture could be protected in a free and separate Muslim State.

10. Narrow mindedness of Hindus

Hindu is a narrow-minded nation who does not believe the philosophy of equality. They considers themselves superior and used to call Muslims 'Maleech' (impure). There was no concept of eating and drinding together. Furthermore Muslims were not allowed to touch the food items of Hindus. There was only way out for the Muslims to demand a separate homeland.

11. Economic Hardships

During the period of British Government, Hindus practically threw out Muslims from the fields of trade and industry. All the business, industrial, and services opportunities were occupied by Hindus and some degraded jobs were left for the Muslims. Muslims of India became the political slave of British and economic slave of Hindus. To come out from this vicious circle, at last, Muslims decided to demand for a separate homeland.

12. Congress Ministries

During the period of Congress Ministries (1937-1939). Hindus did worst possible injustice with Muslims. The Hindu-Muslim riots were usual during the Congress rule. Band-e-Mataram, three coloured flag and statue of Gandhi were introduced at national level. Urdu was replaced by Hindi and slaughtering cow was banned. Muslim leaders showed their resentment before Gandhi and Jawahar lal Nehru. Gandhi showed his helpless while Nehru plainly and openly said that there were only two nations in India, Congress and British and the rest should follow them. After this statement, nothing for left for Muslims but to present Pakistan Resolution in 1940.

Conclusion

On the basis of above mentioned factors and bitter attitude of British and Congress the Muslims apprehended that they would lose their identity if they remained a part of Hindu society. Therefore they quitted Congress and demanded separate land on the ground that they were different nation from Hindus. According to Quaid-e-Azam

The Muslims demanded Pakistan were they can rule in accordance with their own system of life, their cultural development, their traditions and Islamic law.

SERVICES OF ALLAMA IQBAL IN PAKISTAN MOVEMENT

Allama Muhammad Iqbal was born on 9th November 1877 in Sialkot. After seeking early education, he was admitted to the Government College Lahore, where he obtained the degree of MA in the subject of philosophy. He left for England for higher studies in 1905. He obtained the degree of philosophy of ethics in 1907; he obtained the degree of doctorate (Ph.D.) from Munich University.

Services of Iqbal in Pakistan Movement

Iqbal and Pakistan Movement

Although his main interests were scholarly, Iqbal was not unconcerned with the political situation of the country and the political fortunes of the Muslim community of India. Already in 1908, while in England, he had been chosen as a member of the executive council of the newly-established British branch of the Indian Muslim League. In 1931 and 1932 he represented the Muslims of India in Round Table Conference held in England to discuss the issue of the political future of India. And in a 1930 lecture Iqbal suggested the creation of a separate homeland for the Muslims of India. Iqbal died (1938) before the creation of Pakistan (1947), but it was his teaching that spiritually ... has been the chief force behind the creation of Pakistan.

Iqbal's Idea about Nationhood

Allama Iqbal is the greatest philosopher and poet of the present era. Along with this, he possessed the view about political affairs. He awakened the feeling of Muslim nationhood among the Muslims of India through his poetry and told them about the propaganda of West about the Muslim nationhood.

When the Hindu philosophers presented this philosophy that a nation is born throughout the country and when Maulana Hussain Ahmed Madni seconded it, then Iqbal reacted strongly towards it. His thinking and poetry reflect the Two Nation Theory and his poetry awakened the feeling of Islamic Nationality among the Muslims of India. This feeling was a milestone in the created of Pakistan.

Iqbal's Political Life

Allama Iqbal made his debut in politics then he was elected as the member of Punjab's Legislative Assembly in 1926. During the elections of 1937, when Quaid-e-Azam started re contructioning of the Muslim League, Allama Iqbal was along with him. He always supported Quaid-e-Azam and the Muslim League. He always respected Quaid-e-Azam's point of view.

Iqbal and Two Nation Theory

Allama Iqbal firmly believe that the Muslims of India have a separate identity and to protect his identity, the establishment of a separate homeland for the Muslims of India was necessary. On 28th March, 1909, he excusing the invitation from the secular party "Minsva Lodge" said

I have been a keen supporter of this theory that religious differences in the country should end and even now I practise the principle. But, now I think that separate national identity for the Muslims and the Hindus is necessary for their survival.

At his Presidential address in 1930, on the occasion of the annual session of Muslim League at Allahbad, Iqbal said

India is a continent of human groups belonging to different races, speaking different languages and professing different religions. There behaviour is not at all determined by a common race conciousness. I therefore, demand the formation of consolidated Muslim state in the best interest of India and Islam

Pakistan's Sketch

Allama Iqbal's Presidential Address at Allahbad in 1930 determined the political path of the Muslims of sub-continent. In his address, he in clear words said

I would like to see the Punjab, North-West Frontier Province, Sindh and Balochistan be amalgamated into a single state.

He further stated that

The formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim State appeares to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of North-West India.

Thus, Iqbal demanded a sovereign independent Muslim state even before the Muslim League demanded it in Pakistan's Resolution.

Round Table Conference

During 1930-1932 three sessions of Round Table Conference were held. Iqbal attended Second and Third Round Table Conference. Having attended the Second Round Table Conference in September, 1931 in London, he was keenly aware of the deep-seated Hindu and Sikh prejudice and unaccommodating attitude. He had observed the mind of the British Government. Hence he reiterated his apprehensions and suggested safeguards in respect of the Indian Muslims

In so far then as the fundamentals of our policy are concerned, I have got nothing fresh to offer. Regarding these I have already expressed my views in my address to the All India Muslim League. In the present address I propose, among other things, to help you, in the first place, in arriving at a correct view of the situation as it emerged from a rather hesitating behavior of our delegation the final stages of the Round Table Conference. In the second place, I shall try, according to my lights to show how far it is desirable to construct a fresh policy now that the Premier's announcement at the last London Conference has again necessitated a careful survey of the whole situation.

I must be keep in mind that since Maulana Muhammad Ali had died in January 1931 and Quaid-e-Azam had stayed behind in London, the responsibility of providing a proper lead to the India Muslim had fallen on him alone. He had to assume the role of a jealous guardian of his nation till Quaid-e-Azam returned to the sub-continent in 1935.

During the Third Round Table Conference, Iqbal was invited by the London National League where he addressed and audience which included among others, foreign diplomas, members of the House of Commons, Members of the House of Lords and Muslim members of R.T.C delegation. In that gathering he dilated upon the situation of the Indian Muslims. He explained why he wanted the communal settlement first and then the constitutional reforms. He stressed the need for provincial autonomy because autonomy gave the Muslim majority provinces some power to safeguard their rights, cultural traditions and religion. Under the central Government the Muslims were bound to lose their cultural and religious entity at the hands of the overwhelming Hindu majority. referred to what he had said at Allahabad in 1930 and reiterated his belief that before long people were bound to come round to his viewpoint base on cegent reason.

Iqbal's letter to Quaid-e-Azam

The seed sown, the idea to began to evolve and take root. It soon assumed the shape of Muslim state or states in the western and eastern Muslim majority zones as is obvious from the following lines of Iqbal's letter, of June 21, 1937, to the Quaid-e-Azam, only ten months before the former's death

A separate federation of Muslim Provinces, reformed on the lines I have suggested above, is the only course by which we can secure a peaceful India and save Muslims from the domination of Non-Muslims. Why not the Muslims of North-West India and Bengal should be considered as nations entitled to self-determination just as other nations in India and outside India are.

Ideology of Pakistan and Iqbal

Iqbal was strictly against nationalism. He considered all the Muslims to be a part of One Umma. For him, a Muslim whether he belonged to any part of the world was the part of brotherly relation. He considered nationalism to be a coffin for the Muslim Umma.

Thus, opposing the limitation and disadvantages of nationalism, Iqbal gave the philosophy of a "Millat-e-Islamia" and this philosophy is the basis of Pakistan ideology.

Conclusion

In short, personality of Allama Iqbal has left indelible marks in history. He tried to awaken the Muslims of India through his philosophy, poetry and politics and he brought the ideas of independence among the Muslims of India. Iqbal died on 21st April, 1938. He was buried in front of the "Badshahi Mosque" in "Huzori Bagh".

MUSLIM LEAGUE

INDIA AFTER WAR OF INDEPENDENCE AND VERNACULAR ACT

After the WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, the British government came into action and restricted the authority of the EAST INDIA COMPANY by a large extent and the British government itself took the responsibility to control the SUBCONTINENT. In 1877, QUEEN VICTORIA was proclaimed Empress of India in a magnificent ceremony in Delhi.

However, British rule proved unpopular among Indians because they were treated as salves in their own country without any right to have any say in the running of their country. The ruling elite and government servants were all British. The recruitment of Indians into the army was also reduced by a large ratio and conditions were created for the British goods to be available at cheaper rates and therefore local manufacturers found it very hard to sell their own goods.

The lack of opportunities for Indians led to widespread criticism of the British in regional newspapers. The British response was to pass the Vernacular Act of 1878, which placed strict controls on these newspapers. In the same year, the British passed and an Arms Act which made it impossible for most Indians to own weapons, to ensure that future revolts were not that effective. In this environment, it is not surprising that nationalist ideas started to grow in India.

FORMATION OF THE INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS

Events like the passage of the Vernacular Press Act in 1878 and the Ilbert Bill of 1882, as well as the reduction of the age limit for the Civil Services Exams in 1876 resulted in a wave of opposition from the middle class Indians. Consequently some of them came together and formed a number of small political parties that came out in the streets for protests and rallies. The British foresaw the situation resulting in another rebellion on the pattern of the War of Independence of 1857. To avoid such a situation, the British decided to provide an outlet to the local people where they could discuss their political problems. In order to achieve this goal, Allan Octavian Hume, a retired British civil servant, had a series of meetings with Lord Dufferin, the Viceroy. He also visited England and met people like John Bright, Sir James Caird, Lord Ripon and some members of the British Parliament. Hume also had the support of a large number of Englishmen in India, including Sir William Wedderbun, George Yule and Charles Bradlaugh.

On his return from Britain, Hume consulted the local Indian leaders and started working towards the establishment of an Indian political organization. He invited the convention of the Indian National Union, an organization he had already formed in 1884, to Bombay in December 1885. Seventy delegates, most of whom were lawyers, educationalists and journalists, attended the convention in which the Indian National Congress was established. This first session of Congress was presided over by Womesh Chandra Banerjee and he was also elected as the first president of the organization.

To begin with, Congress acted as a 'Kings Party'. Its early aims and objectives were:

1. To seek the cooperation of all the Indians in its efforts.

2. Eradicate the concepts of race, creed and provincial prejudices and try to form national unity.

3. Discuss and solve the social problems of the country.

4. To request the government, give more share to the locals in administrative affairs.

As time went by, the Congress changed its stance and apparently became the biggest opposition to the British government.

Muslims primarily opposed the creation of Congress and refused to participate in its activities. Out of the 70 delegates who attended the opening session of the Congress, only two were Muslims. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, who was invited to attend the Bombay session, refused the offer. He also urged the Muslims to abstain from the Congress activities and predicted that the party would eventually become a Hindu party and would only look after the interests of the Hindus. Syed Ameer Ali, another important Muslim figure of the era, also refused to join Indian National Congress.

THE PARTITION OF BENGAL

Finding the Bengal Presidency too large for one governor to administer, in 1905 the English decided to redraw its boundaries and divided it into two parts.

The provinces of Bengal and Assam were reconstituted so as to form the two provinces of manageable size. Western Bengal, with a population of 54 million (42 million Hindus and 9 million Muslims); and Eastern Bengal and Assam with a population of 31 million (12 million Hindus and 18 million Muslims). The territory to be transferred from Bengal to the new province consisted of the districts of Chittagong and Dhaka Divisions, Rajshahi Division excluding Darjeeling, and the District of Malda.

Curzon, the Viceroy of India, sent the proposal to London in February 1905. The Secretary of State for India St. John Brodrich sanctioned it in June, and the proclamation of the formation of the new province was issued in September. The province of Bengal and Assam came into being on October 16 1905.

Incidentally, the partition went in favor of the Muslims. Before the partition, Western Bengal, being the first area to come under western influence, was developed and industrialized. It was a striking contrast to the eastern part where the Muslim peasantry was crushed under the Hindu landlords, the river system was infested with pirates, and very few funds were allocated for education. It was dreaded as a place of banishment. The partition helped boost Bengali literature and language; efforts were also made towards the social, economic and educational uplift of the Muslims.

●     MUSLIM  REACTION:

The new province if Eastern Bengal brought happier prospects of political and economic life for the Muslims. The Muslims turned into majority by the creations of new province. The partition of Bengal provided chances of great progress to the Muslims who formed the majority group in the new setup. In the combined province of Bengal, the Muslims were a suppressed class of society. The Hindus had monopolized trade and government services which aggravated the economic condition of the Muslims. The partition of Bengal provided them with a chance to rehabilitate their social position. They hoped that their social status would get a tremendous boost in the new province. The Muslims expressed their utmost happiness over the partition of Bengal. They offered their gratification in the loyal way to the government for taking a step for their social, economic and political uplift.

●     HINDU REACTION:

The Hindus reacted toward the partition of Bengal in a hostile and violent manner. The Hindus could never support a move which was to bring prosperity and happiness to the Muslims. The reasons for Hindus opposition to the partition were as follows:

1.      The Hindus believed that they would come under the domination of the Muslim majority in the new province and their superior position would be downgraded to the inferior status.

2.      As the provincial High Court and other judicial bodies were to be shifted to Dhaka, the Hindu lawyers feared that their legal practice would be affected.

3.      Since Dhaka was to become the center of journalistic and other academic activities, the Hindu press and media believed that from now onward the Muslim point of view would be projected in the newspapers and magazines. They also feared that their income would seriously be lessened.

4.      The Hindu landlords, capitalists and traders did not like the partition as it was to put an end to their exploitation of the poor Muslims.

5.      Before the partition of Bengal the Hindus enjoyed dominant position in the political sphere of the province over the Muslims. The new setup was to put an end to their superior political position and their political dominance over the Muslims would finish.

The Hindus, therefore, launched an intensive movement against the partition of Bengal, They termed the partition as degrading and an insult to the national character of the Hindu population. Religions color was given to the agitation and the partition was termed as the dissection of the 'Scared Cow Mother' in order to arouse intense opposition by the Hindu masses. They considered the partition as an attempt to sow the needs of hatred and discontentment among the Indian people to weaken the national movements for independence.

The day of 16 October, 1905, when the partition was enforced, was declared as a national tragedy. Strikes were held throughout the country. The Indian National Congress also jumped in to support the agitation against partition. The Hindu students put up violent demonstrations against the partition. The Congress severely criticized the partition in the annual session of 1906.

The Hindu agitation soon turned into a violent reaction. The people disobeyed government orders by refusing to pay taxes and rentals. Communal clashes erupted at a number of places which upset the law and order situation in the country. The political disorder and unrest largely largely prevailed in the country. Bombs were thrown and attacks were made on the lives of the British people. Swadeshi movement was organized by the Hindu majority to boycott the British manufacturers. The train carrying the Governor of the Eastern Bengal was derailed and an attempt was made on the Viceroy's life which failed.

The Muslims kept away from the Hindu agitation and adopted a humble and loyal posture. They welcomed the partition and passed resolutions supporting the partition of Bengal. They impressed upon the government to maintain its decision of the partition of Bengal.

The most serious result of the Hindu agitation was a steep rise in Hindu - Muslim riots. The net result of this was that the Hindu agitation definitely disunited the Muslims from the Congress.

●     BRITISH REACTION TO HINDU PROTEST:

1.      Restrictions were placed on newspapers and public meetings. Editors were prosecuted and imprisoned. 2.      In 1908, a press act gave even more control to government over newspapers. 3.      Many influential Hindu leaders were either imprisoned or sent into exile.

THE SIMLA DEPUTATION

In 1906 a group of Muslim landed magnates and chieftains organized a deputation of Lord Minto, the Viceroy, at Simla and pleaded for a few concession to the Muslim community of India.

The Simla Deputation, the meeting came to be called, was a pre-arranged affair. And it is said that the Deputation that waited upon Lord Minto was actually a British move.

However, within a few months following the Simla Deputation a political forum of the communalist Muslims emerged. Nawab Salimullah of Dacca took initiative in organizing a conference of the communalist Muslims in which a resolution was adopted in favour of the foundation of the All India Muslim League.

Accordingly the All India Muslim League was founded in 1906.

OBJECTIVES OF THE MUSLIM LEAGUE

The All India Muslim League was formed under the initiative of Nawab Salimulla of Dacca in 1906 with the following objectives.

(1) To promote among the MUSLIMS of India a feeling of loyalty to the British government.

(2) To protect and advance the political rights and interests of the MUSLIMS of India, and to represent their needs and aspirations to the British government.

(3) To prevent the rise among MUSLIMS of India of any feeling of hostility towards other ; communities. Above were the objectives with which the All India Muslim League was founded.

THE MORLEY-MINTO REFORMS

In 1906, Lord Morley, the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs, announced in the British parliament that his government wanted to introduce new reforms for India, in which the locals were to be given more powers in legislative affairs. With this, a series of correspondences started between him and Lord Minto, the then Governor General of India. A committee was appointed by the Government of India to propose a scheme of reforms. The committee submitted its report, and after the approval of Lord Minto and Lord Morley, the Act of 1909 was passed by the British parliament. The Act of 1909 is commonly known as the Minto-Morley Reforms.

The following were the main features of the Act of 1909:

1. The number of the members of the Legislative Council at the Center was increased from 16 to 60.

2. The number of the members of the Provincial Legislatives was also increased. It was fixed as 50 in the provinces of Bengal, Madras and Bombay, and for the rest of the provinces it was 30.

3. The member of the Legislative Councils, both at the Center and in the provinces, were to be of four categories i.e. ex-officio members (Governor General and the members of their Executive Councils), nominated official members (those nominated by the Governor General and were government officials), nominated non-official members (nominated by the Governor General but were not government officials) and elected members (elected by different categories of Indian people).

4. Right of separate electorate was given to the Muslims.

5. At the Center, official members were to form the majority but in provinces non-official members would be in majority.

6. The members of the Legislative Councils were permitted to discuss the budgets, suggest the amendments and even to vote on them; excluding those items that were included as non-vote items. They were also entitled to ask supplementary questions during the legislative proceedings.

7. The Secretary of State for India was empowered to increase the number of the Executive Councils of Madras and Bombay from two to four.

8. Two Indians were nominated to the Council of the Secretary of State for Indian Affairs.

9. The Governor General was empowered to nominate one Indian member to his Executive Council.

THE BENGAL PARTITION REVERSED

Just how vital it was for Muslims to form their own political party was emphasized in 1911 when the British showed that they could not be trusted to protect Muslim interests. Lord Harding, the new Viceroy, agreed to reverse the partition of Bengal. The decision was announced at a Durbar in Delhi on 12 December by King George V, who was visiting India at that time. The British tried to suggest that they had reversed the partition as a part of their governing policy of India. In reality, they had been forced into the move by the fierce opposition of the Bengali Hindus. However, the British also moved the capital from Calcutta to Delhi to show that Hindu opposition had not been completely successful. The reversal of the partition of the partition of Bengal was bitterly opposed by the Muslims, but the British were not to be moved. The Muslims now realized that how important it was for the Muslim League to prosper if they were in hope of receiving fair treatment in India.

SIR SYED AHMED KHAN

Early Biography Details Sir Syed Ahmed Khan was born in 1817 in Delhi. He came from a wealthy family and his father gave him high quality education. When he was 18 Sir Syed was skilled in Arabic, Persian, Mathematics and Medicine. He was also introduced as Sub-continent most able writer. In 1838 his father died so he became a judge in Delhi in 1846. When the war of Independence broke out in 1857 he was working as Chief Judge in Bijnaur and had saved the life of British women and children during the fighting. In return for his loyalty the British gave him estate with large income but he refused. His Belief that armed uprising against the British was pointless made him unpopular to many Muslims. He was appointed Chief justice in Muradabad and was later transferred to Ghazipore. In 1864 he was transferred to Aligarh where he played an important part in establishing the college. In 1876 he retired from his work to concentrate on running the college and devoting himself to improve the position of Muslims through education. He died on 27 March 1898.

Beliefs Sir Syed was extremely unhappy about the position of Muslims in the subcontinent. Since the days of the Mughal declined the social and economical status of Muslims had declined sharply and the role of Muslims in the war of Independence had left further decline as British took measures to ensure that their control was unchallenged. Sir Syed Ahmed felt that the poor status of Muslims was due to they were treated as second-class citizen by British and Hindus and they had to take some responsibilities themselves. Most Muslims thought that British were no more than just invaders and they had nothing to do with them. Sir Syed Ahmed believed that Muslims had to accept that the British were there rulers and could only improve if they have a positive approach towards them. They needed to accept the British idea and their education if they wanted to improve. Sir Syed wanted to see Muslims untied and prospering in their social, economical and religious fortune. He made this his Life’s ambition and founded Aligarh movement.

Aligarh Movement Sir Syed was interested in Muslims. He wanted to improve relations with British and the positions of Muslims. The central aims of the Aligarh Movement were to: - improve relations between the British and Muslims communities by removing British doubts about Muslim loyalty and Muslim doubts about the British intentions. - improve the social and economic position of Muslims by encouraging them to receive Western education and take up posts in the civil service and army. - increase their political awareness to make them aware of the threat to from the Hindu policy of cooperation with the British.

Work 1. Improving Relation between the British and Muslim Communities Sir Syed believed that the position of the Muslims in the subcontinent could only be improved if relations with the British were improved by the Muslims gained higher-quality education. There were two major obstacles to good relations. A. The British had put the entire responsibility for the War of Independence in 1857 on the Muslims. Sir Syed wanted to ensure that this false view was corrected. B. There was a deep-seated resentment of the British among many in the Muslim community. Sir Syed wanted to ensure that the benefits and advantages of British rule, in particular in the areas of science and technology were embraced by the Muslim community to improve the lives of the masses.

Convincing the British In 1860 Sir Syed wrote “The Loyal Mohammedans of India”. In this work he defended Muslims and listed the name of those Muslims who remained Loyal to the British during the uprising. In order to convince that the British were wrong to fully blame the Muslims for the uprising so he wrote a pamphlet “Essay on the Causes of the Indian Revolt”. In this he pointed the reasons for the uprising. He told that British were unable to understand the Indians. This Pamphlet was circulated freely among the British officials in India and the copies were also sent to England were it was studied carefully. Many British thought that he was blaming them for uprising but others sympathetic and accepted the truth in his words. He also cleared the misunderstanding that Muslim called the British “Nadarath”, He told that this was no insult but the word came from Arabic word “Nasir” which means helpers.

Convincing the Muslims Sir Syed was aware that the British knew very little about Islam. Indeed, on a visit to England he was so offended by an English book on the life of the Prophet (PBUH) that he immediately wrote his own work correcting the many errors. Sir Syed was aware that Muslim in India knew very little about Christianity. He tried to overcome this by writing “Tabyin-ul-Kalam” in which he pointed out the similarities between Islam and Christianity.

2. Encouraging the growth of Western education ●     He also supported the idea of western education as he knew that Muslims could not succeed until they had high quality education which was received by the Hindus. He believed that the acceptance of Western scientific and technological ideas was necessary as this could only make Muslim advance in the world of science. He related this with Holy Quran that it was written in Quran that the study and that an understanding of modern scientific belief actually helped reveal the full majesty of God. He established scientific society at Ghazipore and its main purpose was making Scientific Writing available to more people. When he visited England he was impressing by the quality of education the student received there so in 1875 he founded Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College its main purpose was to provide the education to the Muslims like the people in England received. The subjects were Mathematics, Modern Science and Agricultural Science. (In 1920 the college became the University of Aligarh.

3. Increasing Political Awareness Syed Ahmed also wanted Muslims to have a good relation with the Hindus but he found out that Hindus did not want good relations. ●     In 1885 Indian Nation Congress was found which claimed to speak for Indians but later it was found out that it was a body dominated by Hindus. ●     Sir Syed wanted Muslims to stay away from Democracy as the Muslims were in minorities in India and every election would be won by the Hindus. ●     A further cause of concern to Syed Ahmed was the “Hindi-Urdu Controversy”. In 1867 the Hindus demanded that Hindi should be the next official language. The Muslims were struck by this as Urdu had special place in their hearts. This was another factor guiding him towards his two nation theory.

Hindi-Urdu Controversy Hindi-Urdu Controversy was started in 1867. Hindus demanded Hindi to be official language but Muslims wanted Urdu to be official language. Sir Syed supported Urdu in this thing. Due to this reason Sir Syed started “Two Nation Theory” telling that Muslims and Hindus were two separate kinds of people. Muslims opposed this and supported Urdu as it was the sign and united the Muslims of the India under one language.

Two-Nation Theory Urdu was the national language for many years. But Hindus opposed it in Urdu Controversy. This provoked Sir Syed to make his Two Nation Theory to tell that Urdu had place in hearts of Muslims and was supported by them and can’t be replaced by Hindu which was the language of the Hindus. It was important because Sir Syed had realized that Muslims and Hindu couldn’t work together as the Hindus were not with the Muslims.

Another reason was that the parliamentary system was not supported by Sir Syed was Hindus were in more number so they always outnumbered the Muslims and due to this Sir Syed opposed it. Sir Syed realised that separate electorate was the possible solution to this so in view of his Two Nations Theory. He made this decision of separate electorate demand for elections for the good of the Muslims.

Another reason it was important was that congress spoke of competitive examinations for jobs and good posts while Muslims were always not given good education so they were also not able to take good posts as Hindu won all the seats and passed the examinations always. According to Two Nation Theory Sir Syed suggested it as two separate groups of Muslims and Hindus were not working for the Muslims at that time so Two Nation Theory was important here as well.

Importance He worked tirelessly to improve the relation of British and Muslims and wrote several books and pamphlets so that British might be convinced and trust Muslims once again. He played a major role in educating Muslims so that they can take up good jobs and their condition was improved. He is known as “Father of the Pakistan Movement” As he was the first one to express the Idea of treating Muslims and Hindus separately.

Contribution of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (14Marks)

1. Attempts to achieve a better understanding between the British and the Muslims Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was one of the Muslim reformers. He carefully studied and analyzed the decline of Muslims in political power, social status and economic well-being. He came to the conclusion that Muslims were being handicapped because of the misunderstanding which had cropped up between the British and Muslim rulers, the Muslims opposed and hated the British and everything associated with the British. Muslims kept away from modern education and English language which the British were trying to enforce in India. On the other hand the British held the Muslims responsible for the revolt of 1857 and considered them (Muslims) to be their real enemies. The result of this mistrust was that Muslims were being crushed in every way. Therefore, Sir Syed tried to remove this misunderstanding by addressing both the British and Muslims. Sir Syed wrote books and explained to the British that the real cause of 1857 uprising was the wrong policies and altitude of the British themselves. To Muslims Sir Syed explained that Christians and Christianity should not be hated. He specially stressed that Muslims should came towards modern education, the lack of which was causing continual set back to the Muslims of India.

2. Education Sir Syed gave much importance to modern education and his efforts and contribution to Muslim education and his efforts and contribution to Muslim education is very important. He opened schools at several places where he was posted. He established Scientific Society and printed the Aligarh Institute Gazette. He was visited England in 1869 on his own expenses to observe the working of British Universities. Most important achievement in education sector was the founding of M.A.O College at Aligarh in 1877. Sir Syed founded the Mohammadens Educational Conference whose objective was to discuss and solve the education problems of Muslims in the sub-continent. His efforts for Muslim education served double purpose. It helped the Muslims to get good jobs and raised their status in society. It also helped in removing the mistrust between the British and the Muslims. Therefore education was the most important aspect of Sir Syed’s services in the Muslims of India. 3. Politics Sir Syed’s advice to Muslims in the political field is also important. He believed  that under the European system or democratic government the Muslims of India would always be at the mercy of Hindu majority. He suggested separate electorate for Muslims. He advised the Muslims not to join Congress. He opposed the system of competitive examinations for government posts because Muslims were much behind the Hindus in education. Sir Syed strongly opposed the replacement of Urdu with Hindi as court and official language.

4.Religion In Religion Sir Syed united the Muslims by supporting the “Two Nation Theory” and the Hindi-Urdu controversy of 1867 in which Hindus wanted Hindi to be the official language while the Muslims wanted Urdu. He realised the threat to Muslims so united them and gave them good education. Posted 14th December 2012 by Ruman Wajih 29 View comments 8.	DEC 14

WAR OF INDEPENDENCE 1857

In 1857 British faced a serious challenge to their rule in India. This war is called war of Independence. There are many causes for this war which are:

Political As British extended their control they introduced many ways of grabbing land like the use of Doctrine of Lapse was introduced by Lord Dalhousie was very unpopular. The mistreatment of Mughal Emperor was also another cause and when Lord Dalhousie moved the capital from Delhi. It angered many people. English was replaced by Persian as an Official language.

Religious and Social As the rule of British grew so did its culture. The British thought that they were Superior Culture and Disrespected the Indian culture they also did not get mixed with the Indians as they thought that Indians are uneducated and uncivilized people. This arrogant attitude and the introduction of new ways of life with railways, roads and telegraph were not accepted to many Indians. Indians thought that their religion was ay threat by foreigners was sent Christian monks to spread their religion. These monks insulted the religion of the Indians. This angered many Indians.

Economic We have learnt that how British merchants traded with India which was very profitable for them. The British imposed high taxes on Indians and the tax collectors were corrupt and kept some money for themselves the resentment grew when the British filled Indian market with cheap mass produced goods and many families were unable to sell their goods thus this made most of the Indians poor. British also made the salary of their army (Infantry) low.

Military There were many Indian soldiers in the British army but not even a single one of Indian was made an officer. The British used their army to fight other countries and this was not accepted to Indians who wanted to leave their mother land. They were also rumors that The Indians were forced to convert into Christianity before they could be made the Officers.

The Events Of 1857 ●     In January 1857 the British announced that they would introduce a new rifle with a paper cartridge covered with grease to keep the powder dry and before the cartridge would be loaded the end had to be bitten off. However a rumor spread that the grease was made up of Cow and pigs fat. The Sepoys were so angry that they refused to use the new rifle. ●     In March a Sepoy named Mangal Pandey defied his British officer and was executed. ●     In May Sepoys of Meerut refused to touch the new cartridge so they were put to prison but their fellow Sepoys freed them and killed all the British then the soldiers marched to Delhi and captured it. The Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar II wined the support of Hindus and Muslims. The War spread and British lost control of Mathura, Kanpur, Jhansi and Allahabad as well as Delhi and Lucknow. This area is now known as Uttar pardesh. However British proved to be too powerful and quickly regained the areas they had lost. ●     In September Delhi was regained and Bahdur Shah was put into life time prison. In august 1858 the war was officially over.

Reasons For Failure Of War of Independence 1857

1.Lack of Unity Although the whole Indian nation faced resentment against the British but the aims were different. The Muslim wanted to regain control and again set up the Mughal Empire. Their was no general plan or a Leader. The princes did not want the Imperial power once again. There was no sense of patriotism and India was too dived for such a feeling.The only uniting force was Islam but the other groups opposed them which were Hindus and Sikhs as they did not want the rule of Muslim once again on the India. These were the reasons as British considered this as “Muslim Revolt”. 2.British Strength: The most powerful country of that time and because of Industrial Resolution they had High tech weapons. The British army was well trained and was much disciplined and they were provided with large weapons and Funds by the British government. The Perhaps the major reason for the failure of this uprising was the strength of the British.The Britain was Indians were still fighting with each other and in the mean time the British use it clever techniques and weapons to crush the rebellion furthermore it had the support. of some loyal states like Kashmir who sent 2000 troops to support the British win the war.

The Effects of the War The failure of the war conformed the British masters of India. The war did not loosen control but rather tightened it. The East India Company was abolished and the Britain took full control of the Indians affairs. In 1877 the Queen Victoria was given the title as Empress of India and the Mughal royal family decade away. There were very cruel acts in the war as in the town of Cawnpore the Indians had murdered several British women and children to avenge their deaths the British killed anyone who was sympathetic to Indians. They also introduced Viceroy who was known responsible for all the acts in the country. He had over thousand civil servants to help him administer the country. These ranged from highly paid judge to lowly paid junior administer. After the War the British stopped funding Muslim schools and because Muslims still were not ready to accept the British rule so they did not go in the British schools and became uneducated. This was not the case with Sikhs and Hindus and they became friendly with the British and very quickly learned to speak English. After 1857 British did not trust the Indians and thus they were not taken in the army and the British did not allow Indians to have their own weapons and thus making the further rebellions less effective. The Control of the British in India was now unchallenged.

RELIGIOUS THINKERS

SHAH WALIULLAH

●     INTRODUCTION:

Shah Wali Ullah was born on 21 February 1703 during the reign of Aurangzeb his real name was Qutub-ud-din but became famous as Shah Wali-Ullah his father was Shah Abdul Rahim who founded Madrassa Rahimiya in Delhi his father died in 1718.In 1724 Shah Wali Ullah went to Arabia to perform Hajj. He studied under famous scholar Sheikh Abu Tahir bin Ibrahim and returned to Delhi in 1732. During the course of his education, he learned many of his books from his father and was inducted in the tradition of bayath (sacred vows) by his father and by the age of 17 was permitted by his father to provide spiritual guidance and reform his fellow Muslims. After 14 months of stay in Arabia, two hajj pilgrimages and learning the books of hadith from the scholars of the holy cities, Shah Waliullah finally returned to India in early 1145 H.E. the journey home lasted six months and he reached Delhi on Friday 14 Rajab 1145 H.E. on reaching home, he started teaching again and writing until his death three decades later.

●     BELIEFS:

He believed that the Muslims were facing decline not because of weak leadership but because of Muslim community itself. He believed that many Muslims did not have complete knowledge of Quranic teachings. A major problem was that Muslims were divided into Shias and Sunnis and fought with themselves. It was necessary to follow Islamic teachings into every aspect of life.

●     WORK:

He worked hard to ensure that he was a role model for every Muslim. He translated Quran into Persian because many people were unfamiliar with Arabic. Later his sons, Shah Abdul Qader and Shah Rafi, translated Quran into Urdu so more and more people could gain Islamic knowledge. He wrote fifty one books in Persian and Arabic. Amongst the most famous were Hujjatullah-ul-Baligha and Izalat-Akhfa. He also wrote an account of the first four caliphs of Islam in a way that was acceptable to both Shias and Sunnis. In economics he emphasised the need for social justice and for peasants and craftsmen to be truly valued for their contribution to the economy. His most important contributions to the Muslim community was his organization of opposition to the Marathas, who were threatening to over-run the Mughal Empire from the south. It was to call together the divinities among Muslims and unite them for Jihad. He wrote a letter to Afghan King Ahmad Shah Abdali and joined local forces with local Muslim leaders and defeated the Marathas in the Battle of Panipat in 1761. However, despite encouragement from Shah Wali Ullah, the Muslim leaders did not unite to take advantage of the defeat of the Marathas. Perhaps if they had done so, the Muslims would not have soon found themselves under Non-Muslim rule.

●     IMPORTANCE:

Shah Wali Ullah was one of the first thinkers to state that the decline of Mughal Empire and the vulnerable position of the Muslims were due to a neglect of the principles of Islam. He showed how this regeneration might take place. The Madrassa continued to play a vital role in teaching Islamic principles and researching Islamic thought. He believed that Muslims could prosper if they followed proper Islamic customs and did not indulge in social evils. His writing gave large number of Muslims a chance to study their religion and understand its teachings. He gave Muslims inspiration to lead a pure simple Life. He showed that Muslims had to concentrate more on basic principle rather than finding the difference which would lead them in the conflict among them. He tried to oppose Maratha and unite the Muslim under a common enemy. Many future leaders were inspired by his teachings. And fight for the good of Muslim community.

SYED AHMED SHAHEED BARELVI

●     INTRODUCTION:

Syed Ahmad was born in a small town of Rai Bareli near Lucknow. He moved in Delhi in 1806 and Studied in Madrassa Rahimya for two years. In 1810 in joined a Pathan Military Leader and learned to use European weaponry. In 1817 He returned to Delhi trying to make Islam to its original purity.

●     BELIEFS:

He believed that Muslims could achieve their freedom by having arm struggle against the British and Sikhs. He believed that the evil in the Islamic Society had to be cured. He called for Jihad Movement to over throw the non-Muslim force which was oppressing them. Only then Islam could be rescued from the evil customs of other societies.

●     WORK:

In 1821 He went for Hajj and returned from Arabia in 1823 ready for action. At this time Punjab and NWFP was in the control of Sikh and Muslims were unable to live according to their faith. He traveled many hundred miles to raise a mujahideen force. In 1826 Syed Ahmad established his headquarters near Peshawar and sent a messenger asking Ranjit Singh the ruler to allow muslims follow their religion but the request was turn down so he had no choice but to attack at Okara on 21 December 1826 and after that Hazarothe and defeat the Sikhs. He was successful military leader and the mujahideen force soon reached 80,000 men, but there was a major problem as the force had people from different area they quarreled on how the camping should run. Sikhs tried to exploit the army by calling it un-Islamic but it was consider jihad by Muslim leaders. When Syed Ahmad was about to attack the fort of Attock he encountered the army of Sikh of 35000 men’s. What he did not know was that Yar Muhammad Khan a Pathan chief was bribed by the Sikh and even his servant tried to poison him. Then Yar Muhammad deserted him on the battle field along his men and thus this creates chaos and lead to defeat. Syed Ahmad had no choice but to move his headquarters to safety of Panjtar near Kashmir but was again betrayed when a person in his army told the British a secret way to attack them. In battle of Balakot 1831 a surprise attack was lead by Sikh and Six hundred Muslims were killed along with Syed Ahmed.

●     IMPORTANCE:

The Defeat of the mujahideen in the Battle of Balakot was a serious setback for the Jihad movement still it survived. The movement continued on the hills of NWFP until 1863 when the British sent large force to deal with it still it survived through determination of its followers. The work of Syed Ahmad was important because it was the first arm struggle of a movement to free Muslims from non-Muslim rule. It was not a movement for a leader but it was to achieve religious freedom. Jihad of Syed Ahmad inspired many Muslims. It is the fore-runner of Pakistan movement as the aim of this movement was to safe-guard Muslim interest and achieves a homeland where they can practice their Religion, Culture and Freedoms.

HAJI SHARIATULLAH

●     INTRODUCTION:

He was born in 1781 in Faridpur district in east Bengal. His family was poor. In 1799 He went to Arabia on pilgrimage and stayed there for nineteen years. He was greatly influenced by the teaching of Sheikh Muhammad Abdul Wahab.

●     BELIEFS:

He believed that the miserable condition of the Muslims in India led to the country being Dar-Ul-Harb (Country under Foreign Rule). He told that Friday prayer and Eid prayer cannot be offered here. He also believed that Muslim community had moved away from Islamic practice. He wanted them to return to what he thought was the proper observation of Islamic duties called Faraizi. This was why he started his movement was called Faraizi Movement. The Faraizi Movement supported the idea of Jihad against the non-Muslims who were undermining the true principles of Islam.

●     WORK:

He started Faraizi movement to restore the Pride of the Muslims and remove what he thought were the Hindu practices. Emphasis was placed on praying for past sins and promising to lead a righteous life in the future which had crept into their worship. The success of this movement caused British and Hindu Landlord’s and they did not want Haji Shariat Ullah to create difficulty for them by uniting a desire to improve their lives and purify their religion so they drove Haji out of the reign to Nawabganj in Dhaka where he died in 1840. His work however was carried by his son Mohsin-ud-Din who continued to improve the position of Muslim in East Bengal and introduced important economic measures. He divides East Bengal into circle under control of each Khalifa to carry out religious activities. He helped the peasants to oppose land taxes and he threatened to declare Jihad against the British so he was captured and put in prison where he died in 1860.

●     IMPORTANCE:

Work of Haji Shariat Ullah was important to Faraizi Movement because it gave encouragement to Muslims at a time when they demoralised by oppression suffered from Hindus and British. It also brought about a spiritual revival which led to a revival in Islamic religion in East Bengal. Hindu influences were removed from Islamic practices. It might be said that some seeds for the Pakistan Movement were sown by the Faraizi Movement.

COMPARISIONS OF RELIGIOUS THINKERS

Islam was widely spread in subcontinent by Shah Wali Ullah Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi and Haji Shariat Ullah. Shah Wali Ullah was a religious scholar. He taught Islamic teachings in the Madrassa Rahimya. This produced a number of scholars in the sub-continent and therefore increased spread of Islam. Shah Wali Ullah also translated the Quran in Persian. Arabic was not very much understood in the sub continent so translating Quran revived Quranic teachings in the subcontinent because Muslims and also other people could understand Quranic teachings. Shah Wali Ullah also wrote to all Muslim leaders in the subcontinent to unite and defeat the Marathas it was partly due to his persuade that Ahmed Durrani came to subcontinent and defeated the Marathas. Thus by writing letters he decreased the non Muslim influence of Marathas and united Muslim leaders which revived Islam in subcontinent. Shah Wali Ullah wrote several books about 51. These books were extremely popular. These not only converted many people to Islam and increase understanding of religion for Muslims of Islam but also united the different Muslim sectarian such as the Shias and Sunnis. Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi also played part in reviving Islam. He started the Jihad Movement. The Jihad Movement was a Movement started by Muslims to defeat the non Muslim oppressors. The Movement united all the different Muslim against one common enemy. This showed the power of the Muslims and united the Muslim community which spread Islam. Haji Shariat Ullah started the Faraizi Movement. It indicated tht Muslims should return to their religious teaching and perform their religious obligations. This particularly became popular in Bengal and Muslims were revived back to their religious teachings. His movement also united the Muslims of Bengal. However there were failures Shah Wali Ullah was not able to bring Muslim power back to subcontinent and Muslims were still being oppressed by Marathas who prevented them from obeying there religions law. Syed Ahmed eventually failed to defeat the British and the oppressing Sikhs and Muslims once again returned to their torturing lives. Haji Shariat Ullah could only bring rejuvenation in Bengal and so could not reach the entire subcontinent. The failure of the Jihad Movements discouraged Muslims to rise up against the enemy which weakened Islam.

●     CONCLUSION:

Although every religious thinker was quite successful in spreading the message amongst the people, Shah Wali Ullah through writings, Syed Ahmed Shaheed Barelvi through his Jihad Movement and Haji Shariat Ullah through his Faraizi movement, yet in my opionion Shah Wali Ullah was most successful as his work was ever lasting and sowed a seed for the later "Pakistan Movement".

COMPARISION OF THEIR WORKS

There were many Muslims reformers at that time. SWU was one of them. He believed that the Muslims were not able to understand Islam because they weren’t able to understand the Holy Quran because it was in Arabic. He translated Holy Quran from Arabic to Persian. Later it was translated to Urdu by his sons. He wrote 51 books .They include Hujjatullah-ul Baligha and Izalat al Akhfa. He also wrote an account on the four Caliphs of Islam to decrease differences between Sunnis and Shias.(he also fought against the Marathas) Another reformer was SASB. He was a man of action. He was a great Muslim warrior. He gathered an army of mujahideen to fight against the Sikhs and Ranjit Singhs forces. He did Jihad against the Ranjit Singh army at many times. Although many people left him he still continued the fight against the Sikhs. He fought the Battle of Balakot in 1831. It was the first example of a movement formed to free Muslims from non Muslims leaders. It was a uniting force for the Muslims and inspiration for future Muslims. Another reformer was HSU. He believed that the country was now Dar-Ul Harb where non Muslims ruled. He also believed that the Muslims had moved away from true Islamic practice so he started a movement called the Faraizi Movement. It supported the idea of Jihad Movement. The Faraizi Movement was started to restore the pride of Muslims and remove non Muslim practices in Islam. This Movement encouraged the Muslims. It brought a spiritual revival. It also had much economic impact. The Bengal peasants became united in opposition to the British and became aware of their rights and unity became to grow between them and they realised their rights that should have been given. Conclusion I think SWU was the most important reformer because he was one of the first persons to realise the main thing of Muslims problems. He did the major thing of translating Holy Quran to Persian so that more people could understand it.

MUGHAL EMPIRE

EMPEROR ZAHEERUDDIN BABAR

Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur (February 14, 1483 – December 26, 1530) was a Turko-Mongol Muslim conqueror from CentralAsia who, following a series of setbacks, finally succeeded in laying the basis for the Mughal dynasty in South Asia. He was a direct descendant of Timur through his father, and a descendant also of Genghis Khan through his mother. Babur identified his lineage as Timurid and Chaghatay-Turkic, while his origin, milieu, training, and culture were steeped in Persian culture and so he was largely responsible for the fostering of this culture by his descendants, and for the expansion of Persian culturalinfluence in the Indian subcontinent, with brilliant literary, artistic, and historiographical results. Conquest of the Lodhi Empire, first Battle of Panipat and batrles against Rajputs were some highlights of his reigning period.

EMEPROR HUMAYUN

Nasir ud-din Muhammad Humayun (7 March 1508– 17 January 1556) was the second Mughal Emperor who ruled present day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and parts of norther India from 1530–1540 and again from 1555–1556. Like his father,Babur, he lost his kingdom early, but with Persian aid, he eventually regained an even larger one. On the eve of his death in 1556, the Mughalempire spanned one million square kilometers.

He succeeded his father in India in 1530, while his half-brother Kamran Mirza, who was to become a rather bitter rival, obtained the sovereignty of Kabul andLahore, the more northern parts of their father's empire. He originally ascended the throne at the age of 22 and was somewhat inexperienced when he came to power.

Humayun lost Mughal territories to the Pashtun noble, Sher Shah Suri, and, with Persian aid, regained them 15 years later. Humayun's return from Persia, accompanied by a large retinue of Persian noblemen, signaled an important change in Mughal court culture, as the Central Asian origins of the dynasty were largely overshadowed by the influences of Persianart, architecture, language and literature and also there are many stone carved and Persian language In India from the time of Humayun also thousands of Persian manuscript in India.

Subsequently, in a very short time, Humayun was able to expand the Empire further, leaving a substantial legacy for his son, Akbar. His peaceful personality, patience and non-provocative methods of speech earned him the title Insan-i-Kamil, among the Mughals.

EMPEROR AKBAR

Jalal-ud-Din Muhammad Akbar, also known as Shanshah Akbar-e-Azam or Akbar the Great (14 October 1542 – 27 October 1605), was the third Mughal Emperor. He was of Timurid descent; the son of Emperor Humayun, and the grandson of the Mughal Emperor Zaheeruddin Muhammad Babur, the ruler who founded the Mughal dynasty in India. At the end of his reign in 1605 the Mughal empire covered most of the northern and central India. He is most appreciated for having a liberal outlook on all faiths and beliefs and during his era, culture and art reached to zenith as compared to his predecessors. Akbar was 13 years old when he ascended the Mughal throne in Delhi (February 1556), following the death of his father Humayun. During his reign, he eliminated military threats from the powerful Pashtun descendants of Sher Shah Suri, and at the Second Battle of Panipat he decisively defeated the newly self-declared Hindu king Hemu. It took him nearly two more decades to consolidate his power and bring all the parts of northern and central India into his direct realm. He influenced the whole of the Indian Subcontinent as he ruled a greater part of it as an emperor. As an emperor, Akbar solidified his rule by pursuing diplomacy with the powerful Hindu Rajput caste, and by marrying Rajput princesses. Akbar's reign significantly influenced art and culture in the country. He was a great patron of art and architecture He took a great interest in painting, and had the walls of his palaces adorned with murals. Besides encouraging the development of the Mughalschool, he also patronised the European style of painting. He was fond of literature, and had several Sanskrit works translated into Persian and Persian scriptures translated in Sanskrit apart from getting many Persian works illustrated by painters from his court. During the early years of his reign, he showed intolerant attitude towards Hindus and other religions, but later exercised tolerance towards non-Islamic faiths by rolling back some of the strict sharia laws. His administration included numerous Hindu landlords, courtiers and military generals. He began a series of religious debates where Muslim scholars would debate religious matters with Hindus, Jains, Zoroastrians and Portuguese Roman Catholic Jesuits. He treated these religious leaders with great consideration, irrespective of their faith, and revered them. He not only granted lands and money for the mosques but the list of the recipients included a huge number Hindu temples in north and central India, Christian churches in Goa. It is reported that he even formed his own religion, known as DIN E ILLAHI, which consisted of concepts from all faiths embedded into one. However, he eventually himself gave up practicing his religion and reverted back to Islam.

EMPEROR JAHANGIR

Born as Prince Muhammad Salim, he was the third and eldest surviving son of Mughal Emperor Akbar. Akbar's twin sons, Hasan and Hussain, died in infancy. His mother was the Rajput Princess of Amber, Jodhabai (born Rajkumari Hira Kunwari, eldest daughter of Raja Bihar Mal or Bharmal, Raja of Amber, India). Jahangir was a child of many prayers. It is said to be by the blessing of Shaikh Salim Chisti (one of the revered sages of his times) that Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar's first surviving child, the future Jahangir, was born. He was born at the dargah of the Shaikh Salim Chisti, within the fortress at Fatehpur Sikri near Agra. The child was named Salim after the darvesh and was affectionately addressed by Akbar as Sheikhu Baba. Akbar developed an emotional attachment with the village Sikri (abode of Chishti). Therefore, he developed the town of Sikri and shifted his imperial court and residence from Agra to Sikri, later renamed as Fatehpur Sikri. Akbar ensured that his son received the best education possible. Salim started his studies at the age of four and was taught Farsi, Turkish, Arabic, Urdu, history, arithmetic, geography and other sciences by important tutors like Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan, a renowned soldier and scholar.

Jahangir was responsible for ending a century long struggle with the state of Mewar.The campaign against the Rajputs was pushed so extensively that the latter were made to submit and that too with a great loss of life and property. Jahangir also thought of capturing the fort of Kangra, which Akbar had failed to do so. Consequently a siege was laid, which lasted for fourteen months, and the fort w

he health of H.M Jahangir was completely shattered due on account of too much of drinking. He was trying to restore it by visiting Kashmir and Kabul. He went from Kabul to Kashmir but returned to Lahore on account of severe cold.

H.M Jahangir died on the way in 1627 and buried in a tomb garden at Shahdara-Lahore, Pakistan.

H.M Jahangir was succeeded by his third son, Prince Khurram who took the title of Shah Jahan. H.M Jahangir's elegant mausoleum is located in the Shahdara, Lahore now its become a popular tourist attraction in Lahore.

EMPEROR SHAH JAHAN

Born On: January 5, 1592

Died On: January 22, 1666

He was the Founder of the magnificent monument Taj Mahal, Also associated with the Red Fort of Delhi, Jama Masjid of Delhi, Section of Agra Fort, the Wazir Khan Mosque and the Moti Masjid in Lahore, Pakistan

Shah Jahan, his name along with the name of his wife Mumtaz Mahal, being synonymous with the existence and ever growing popularity of Taj Mahal, was a Mughal Emperor of the Southern Asia who reigned from 1627 to 1658. Born as Prince Shihab-ud-din Muhammad Khurram in the Lahore, Pakistan of 1592, Shah Jahan was the son of Emperor Jahangir. His name Khurram, which means "joyful" in Persian, was given to him by his grandfather Akbar the Great. Displaying great military skills at an early age against numerous enemies including Mewar, the Lodi in the Deccan, and Kangra, impressed his father so much that Shah Jahan received the title "Shah Jahan Bahadur" from him. He wasn't just a sharp military leader, but also had an exceptional talent for building and proved it by re-designing buildings within the Agra fort. Among many titles he had earned, "The Builder of the Marvels" was one that was about to be proved the most deserving in the time to come.

The most significant part of Shah Jahan's life history began in 1607 when he was 15 and was betrothed to Arjumand Banu Begum, the granddaughter of a Persian noble and was just 14 at that time. After they got married in 1612, Arjumand became the unquestioned love of his life. Khurram, upon finding her appearance and character elect among all the women of the time, bestowed her with the title of Mumtaz Mahal, meaning "Jewel of the Palace". Although Mumtaz was one among the few wives Shah Jahan had had, according to the official court chronicler Qazwini, the relationship with his other wives "had nothing more than the status of marriage. The intimacy, deep affection, attention and favor which His Majesty had for the Cradle of Excellence (Mumtaz) exceeded by a thousand times what he felt for any other". She was his inseparable companion, accompanying him even on military ventures, a trusted confidante and their relationship was intense.

After she died in 1631 while giving birth to their 14th child, Shah Jahan undertook the work of constructing world's most beautiful monument in her memory. This monument, which entombs Mumtaz Mahal as well as Shah Jahan, came to be known as "Taj Mahal", the building of which took 22 years and 22000 laborers. It was in 1657 that Shah Jahan fell ill, and Dara, Mumtaz Mahal's eldest son assumed responsibility of his father's throne. His other son, Aurangzeb, accompanied by his younger brothers Shuja and Murad marched upon Agra to in order to claim their share. They defeated Dara's armies and declared their father Shah Jahan incompetent to rule and put him under house arrest in Agra Fort. After Shah Jahan died in 1666 in captivity, his body was taken quietly by two men and was laid beside Mumtaz. Apart from the Taj Mahal, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, the Red Fort of Delhi, Jama Masjid of Delhi, Section of Agra Fort, the Wazir Khan Mosque and the Moti Masjid in Lahore, Pakistan, are some of the noble structures associated with the name of Shah Jahan, meaning "King of the World" in Persian.

EMPEROR AURANGZEB

Aurangzeb was the third son of the fifth emperor Shah Jahan and Arjumand Banu Begum (also known as Mumtaz Mahal). After a rebellion by his father, part of Aurangzeb's childhood was spent as a virtual hostage at his grandfather Jahangir's court.

From the start of his reign up until his death, Aurangzeb engaged in almost constant warfare. He built up a massive army, and began a program of military expansion along all the boundaries of his empire.

Aurangzeb pushed into the north-west — into the Punjab and what is now Afghanistan. He also drove south, conquering Bijapur and Golconda, his old enemies. He attempted to suppress the Maratha territories, which had recently been liberated by Chhatrapati Shivaji.

But the combination of military expansion and religious intolerance had far deeper consequences. Though he succeeded in expanding Mughal control, it was at an enormous cost in lives and to the treasury. And, as the empire expanded in size, the chain of command grew weaker.

The Sikhs of the Punjab grew both in strength and numbers in rebellion against Aurangzeb's armies. When the now weakened Muslim kingdoms of Golconda and Bijapur fell beneath Aurangzeb's might, the Marathas waged a war with Aurangzeb which lasted for 27 years.

Even Aurangzeb's own armies grew restive — particularly the fierce Rajputs, who were his main source of strength. Aurangzeb gave a wide berth to the Rajputs, who were mostly Hindu. While they fought for Aurangzeb during his life, on his death they immediately revolted against the Empire, an essential after-effect of Aurangzeb's Islamic fundamentalist policies.

With much of his attention on military matters, Aurangzeb's political power waned, and his provincial governors and generals grew in authority.

From the start of his reign up until his death, Aurangzeb engaged in almost constant warfare. He built up a massive army, and began a program of military expansion along all the boundaries of his empire.

Aurangzeb pushed into the north-west — into the Punjab and what is now Afghanistan. He also drove south, conquering Bijapur and Golconda, his old enemies. He attempted to suppress the Maratha territories, which had recently been liberated by Chhatrapati Shivaji.

But the combination of military expansion and religious intolerance had far deeper consequences. Though he succeeded in expanding Mughal control, it was at an enormous cost in lives and to the treasury. And, as the empire expanded in size, the chain of command grew weaker.

The Sikhs of the Punjab grew both in strength and numbers in rebellion against Aurangzeb's armies. When the now weakened Muslim kingdoms of Golconda and Bijapur fell beneath Aurangzeb's might, the Marathas waged a war with Aurangzeb which lasted for 27 years.

Even Aurangzeb's own armies grew restive — particularly the fierce Rajputs, who were his main source of strength. Aurangzeb gave a wide berth to the Rajputs, who were mostly Hindu. While they fought for Aurangzeb during his life, on his death they immediately revolted against the Empire, an essential after-effect of Aurangzeb's Islamic fundamentalist policies.

With much of his attention on military matters, Aurangzeb's political power waned, and his provincial governors and generals grew in authority.

Although his father's rule was generally peaceful, the empire was experiencing challenges by the end of his reign. Shah Jahan reversed this trend by putting down a [Islamic] rebellion in Ahmednagar, repulsing the Portuguese in Bengal, capturing the Rajput kingdoms of Baglana and Bundelkhand to the west and the northwest beyond the Khyber Pass. Shah Jahan's military campaigns drained the imperial treasury.[citation needed] Under his rule, the state became a huge military machine and the nobles and their contingents multiplied almost fourfold, as did the demands for more revenue from the peasantry. It was however a period of general stability — the administration was centralised and court affairs systematised. Historiography and the arts increasingly became instruments of propaganda, where beautiful artworks or poetry expressed specific state ideologies which held that central power and hierarchical order would create balance and harmony. The empire continued to expand moderately during his reign but the first signs of an imperial decline were seen in the later years.

Many subjects rebelled against Aurangzeb's policies, among them his own son, Prince Akbar.

In 1667, the Yusufzai Pashtuns revolted near Peshawar and were crushed.

In 1669, the Jats around Mathura revolted and led to the formation of Bharatpur state after his death.

In 1670, Chhatrapati Shivaji had opened the war against the Mughals. He opposed Aurangzeb with full strength and stopped him from entering the Deccan.

In 1672 the Satnamis, a Kabirpanthi sect concentrated in an area near Delhi, staged an armed revolt, taking over the administration of Narnaul, and defeating Mughal forces in an advance on Delhi. Aurangzeb sent an army of ten thousand, including his Imperial Guard, and put the rebellion down.

Soon afterwards the Afridi Pashtuns in the north-west also revolted, and Aurangzeb was forced to lead his army personally to Hasan Abdal to subdue them.

When Maharaja Jaswant Singh of Jodhpur died in 1679, a conflict ensued over who would be the next Raja. Aurangzeb's choice of a nephew of the former Maharaja was not accepted by other members of Jaswant Singh's family and they rebelled, but in vain. Aurangzeb seized control of Jodhpur. He also moved on Udaipur, which was the only other state of Rajputana to support the rebellion. There was never a clear resolution to this conflict, although it is noted that the other Rajputs, including the celebrated Kachhwaha Rajput clan of Raja Jai Singh, the Bhattis, and the Rathores, remained loyal. On the other hand, Aurangzeb's own third son, Prince Akbar, along with a few Muslim Mansabdar supporters, joined the rebels in the hope of dethroning his father and becoming emperor. The rebels were defeated and Akbar fled south to the shelter of the Maratha Chhatrapati Sambhaji, Chhatrapati Shivaji's successor.

Aurangzeb ruled India for 48 years. He was the only Mughal emperor to be seen at par with the Ottoman emperors in wealth and power. He brought a larger area under Mughal rule than ever before. He is generally regarded as the last Great Mughal ruler. His constant wars, however, left the empire dangerously overextended, isolated from its strong Rajput allies, and with a population that (except for the orthodox Sunni Muslim minority) was resentful, if not outright rebellious, against his reign. His last twenty five years were spent fighting in the Deccan till his death in 1707.

H.M Aurangzeb Alamgir led an extremely simple and pious life. He followed Muslim precepts with his typical determination, and even memorized the entire Qur'an. He knitted Haj caps and copied out the Qur'an throughout his life and sold these anonymously. He used only the proceeds from these to fund his modest resting place. He died in Ahmednagar on Friday, February 20 1707 at the age of 88, having outlived many of his children. His modest open-air grave in Khuldabad expresses his strict and deep interpretation of Islamic beliefs.

His reign saw several rebellion movements like the SIKH REBELLION AND THE PASHTUN REBELLION. War against the MARAHTAS was also one of the most significant events of his reign.

REASONS FOR THE DECLINE OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE

The Mughal Empire which had reached its zenith, began to decline after the reign of Aurangzeb. There were many causes for the downfall of the Mughal Empire.

Aurangzeb’s responsibility: Aurangzeb was largely responsible for the downfall of the Mughal Empire. His predecessors did a lot to win over the loyalty of his subjects, but Aurangzeb being a Fanatic could not tolerate the non-Muslims. He imposed jaziya and forbade the celebrations of Hindu Festivals. He thus lost friendship and loyalty with the Rajputs. His execution of the Sikh guru and his enmity with the Marathas forced them to raise forces against him. His excessive obsession with the Deccan destroyed Mughal army, treasure and also affected his health. Aurangzeb being a Fanatic Sunni Muslim, could not even tolerate the Shias. He laid too much of stress on simplicity and was against singing, dancing and drinking which were common habits of the Muslim nobles. Aurangzeb, thus ‘himself gave a green signal to the forces of decay’. After the death of Aurangzeb, the mighty empire disintegrated into smaller states.

Weak successors: The successors of Aurangzeb were both weak and incompetent. They spent more time on their harems and pleasure and soon lost control of the state,

No Definite Law of Succession: There was no definite law of succession during the Mughal Empire. After the death of every Emperor, there ensued a bloody war of succession amongst his sons. Each one, used nobles and members of the royal household to get the throne. This created anarchy. This made the Mughal power weak and vulnerable.

Poor Economy: The Economic condition of the Mughal Empire was ruined because of constant wars. They spent money lavishly on buildings and monuments. Finally the foreign invasions completely shattered the economy.

Moral Degradation of Soldiers: The Mughal soldiers had wealth and luxury, which made them lazy, corrupt and inefficient. They were pleasure-giving and easygoing. Often they were also disloyal. They sometimes fought only for money and easily got succumbed to bribes.

Rise of New Powers: New Powers such as the Sikhs, the Jhats and the Marathas came onto the scene. They broke off from the Mughal domination and established their independent states.

Coming of Europeans: The Europeans, especially British played a major role in putting an end to the Mughal Empire. They obtained a firman to trade with India. Gradually, the started interfering with Indian politics, gradually the established a British Empire in India which lasted for about 200 years.

Foreign Invasions: The invasions of Nadir Shah and Ahmad Shah Abdali proved fatal to the Mughal Empire. India also became an easy prey for foreign rulers.

Posted 14th December 2012 by Ruman Wajih 3 View comments 12.	DEC 14

KHILAFAT MOVEMENT KHILAFAT MOVEMENT

At the beginning of 1st world war (1914) seat of Khilafat was held by Turkey (Ottoman Empire). In the frist world war, the Turks had fought on the side of the Germany and Austrian Empire agaisnst Britain, France and Russia. British wanted Indian Muslims to fight in the war against the Turks, but they knew that British would respect the rights of the Khalifa and Turkish Empire would be maintained. As a result of this promise thousands of Muslims joined the British Army.Turkish side defeated at the end of the war. Muslims all over the world were concerned with how Turkey would be treated. Istanbul had been the home of Caliphate and the Turkish Sultan was recognized as the Khalifa or caliph. The Allies hpoed to destroy the Ottoman Empire by encouraging, Turkey to become a nation rather than an empire. The treaty Of Versailles set out to divide Germany into two parts.

KHILAFAT COMMITTEE:The Muslims of India decided to launch a movement for the safeguard of the institution of Caliphate and to manifesttheir resentment over actions the Allies had taken in Turkey. A “Khilafat Committee” was set up in 1919 toconduct and to organize the Khilfat movement with Maulana Shaukat Ali as its General Secretary. Congress also supported this movement under Abdul Kalam Azad. This movement was launched to pressurize the British into keeping their promises. In Novemeber 1919 the 1st Khilafat Conference was held in Delhi. Gandhi was also present at the Conference. A resolution was alos passed asking the muslims as religious duty to adopt the policy of non-cooperation with the British. In December 1919 the 2nd Khilafat Conference was held in Amri tsar. At the same time both Congress and muslims League were also meeting the city. It was agreed that all three organizations should work together to oppose plans to dismember the Turkishempire. Khilafat Delegation: The khilafat delegation left for England in march 1919 under the leadership of Maulana Mohammed Ali Johar and met the Prime Minister Lloyd George. The Prime minster refused to accept any arguments extended by the Khilafat Delegation and it failed without achieving its purpose. While the delegation was still in Europe the terms of the treaty of Severs with turkey was reduced only to Turkish orgin area. Allied divided the non-Turkish part of Ottoman Empire among themselves. Non-Cooperation Movement : In August 1920 a full scale Non-Cooperation Movement was launched in with the collaboration with Gandhi.Gandhi came forward with their full support for the movement. Indians were asked to give up Government. Services, renounce title and boycott courts of law and British goods, walk out of schools and colleges. Gandhi assured the people that if this movement would be in a united, disciplined and non-violent fashion, they would attain “Swaraj or Self-Rule” with in a year. The Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement took the shape of mass movement. This was the most serious political threat that the British faced after the War of independence 1857. Hindu-Muslim unity was at its height. The congress cleverly decided to use Muslim agitation to press the British for the further concession on self-rule and to show the Muslims that the hindu Muslims unity was beneficial. Quaid-e-Azam was not in favour of Gandhi’s non-cooperation program because he thought that it might be violent, so he reisgned from Congress in 1920.

HIJRAT MOVEMENT : It was a by-product of Khilafat Movement. In 1920 Abdul Kalam Azad and Maulana Abdul Bari gave a call for Hijrat Movement and urged the muslims to migrate to a place where they can freely pratice their religion,they called India as ‘dar-ul-Harb’. Nearly 18000 muslims mostly from Sind, NWFP and Punjab after selling their land and properties, migrated to Afghanistan. The Afghan Government welcomed them in the beginning but afterwards refuse to accept them. Many people perished in the way and those who returned back to India to find them homeless and doomed forever. As a result of this all muslims became backward in all fields of life. This migration to Afghanistan is known as the, “Hijrat Movement” in the history of India. CHAURA CHAURI INCIDENT:The non-cooperation movement was leading to violence and losing its momentum. In Feb. 1922 at Chaura Chauri in a village near UP a trouble erupted between the police and the demonstrating procession. The hostile mob set fire to the police station where 22policemen were burnt alive. Gandhi was so upset that he immediately and unilaterally called of non-cooperation movement doing great deal of damage to the entire Khilafat Movement.

REASONS FOR THE FAILURE OF KHILAFAT MOVEMENT:

incident in feburary 1922, Gandhi himself called of the Non-Cooperation movement which caused a sever blow to the Khilafat Movement. leaders the movement lost its momentum.\ together, their unity was probably always doomed to failure.The Hindu aim for self rule was not really an objective of the muslims and Hindus were prepared to support the Muslims in protecting their religious right only as long as it helped move India towards the self-rule. Muslims were shocked by the lack of support from the Afghangovernement. Kamal Ata Turk Pasha who exiled Khalifa, Muhammad Vl and abolished Khilafat and established nationalist governement of Turkey.ss?
 * The non-violence, non-cooperative movement turned intoviolence. After the Chaura Chauri
 * Gandhi and other muslim’s leader of the movement were arrested in 1922 with the arrest of
 * Although the Khilafat Movement was the first movementin which Hindus and Muslims worked
 * Hijrat Movement at critical stage was another blow for Muslims. Hijrat to Afghanistan where the
 * On 3rd March 1924 the final and deadly blow was struck at the Khilafat movement by Mustafa

MADE BY:- DANYAL-NAEEM