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***Note to peer reviewer: This sandbox contains additions to the existing Wikipedia article: Muqarnas

Prominent examples of their development can be found in the minaret of Badr al-Jamali's mashhad in Cairo, dated by inscription to 1085, a cornice in Cairo's north wall (1085), the Jameh Mosque of Isfahan (1088), the Almoravid Qubba (1107–43) in Marrakech, the Great Mosque of Tlemcen in Algeria (1136), the Mosque of the Qarawiyyin in Morocco (rebuilt between 1135 and 1140), the Bimaristan of Nur al-Din in Damascus (1154), the Alhambra in Granada, Spain, the Abbasid palaces in Baghdad, Iraq, and the mausoleum of Sultan Qaitbay, Cairo, Egypt. Large rectangular roofs in wood with muqarnas-style decoration adorn important buildings in Norman Sicily, such as the Cappella Palatina (see below). Muqarnas ornament is also found in Armenian architecture.

Significance[edit]
Muqarnas ornament is significant in Islamic architecture because it represents an ornamental form that conveys the vastness and complexity of Islamic ideology. The distinct units of the dome represent the complex creation of the universe, and in turn the Creator, himself. The elaborate nature of the stacked domes also serve as a representation of heaven. Influenced by the theology of the Greek Atomist Theory, it was believed that every atom composing a muqarnas dome was connected with God. The astonishing ability for the extremely complex and seemingly unsupported muqarnas dome was proof of the mysterious existence of the universe.

The muqarnas domes were often constructed above portals of entry for the purpose of establishing a  threshold between two worlds. The celestial connotation of the muqarnas structure represents a passage from "the functions of living, or of awaiting eternal life that is expressed by geometric forms." When featured in the interior of domes, the viewer would look upward (towards heaven) and contemplate its beauty. Conversely, the downward hanging structures of the muqarnas represented God's presence over the physical world.

Case Study: Cappella Palatina
Though muqarnas are highlighted as a characteristic of Islamic architecture, they were also valued by Christian rulers and appreciated for their fine craftsmanship. A useful example is the nave ceiling of the Cappella Palatina, the chapel of the Royal Palace in Palermo, commissioned by Roger II of Sicily in 1132. Unlike the majority of muqarnas found in Islamic architecture, the rectangular ceiling features intricate painted wooden muqarnas and is thought to be the only existing example of its type. To achieve the ceiling’s three-dimensional composition, a geometric reference grid was made which was fit to the dimensions of the architecture. The grid was then translated from two dimensions (width and depth) to three dimensions (width, depth, and height) with the fabrication and use of individual building blocks or units. These units were mostly triangular or quadrilateral and when combined create most  forms of muqarnas. The eight-pointed stars and flowers featured in the ceiling are derived from the intersecting points of the rectangular grid, which then become the rotation point of a square. The individual units were combined in sets and installed a row or tier around the perimeter of the space, just above the molding separating the ceiling from the nave wall. The next tier used the previous tier as a base and was then installed on or around it with repeating composition sets, according to the grid. Thus, the five tiers in the ceiling make a decorative transition from the vertical nave wall to the horizontal apex of the ceiling.

In addition to its geometric complexity, the three ceilings of the Cappella Palatina are notable for the sheer volume of paintings on its surfaces. Together there are 3343 unique framed paintings comprising the largest repository of medieval paintings.

Because there are no similar examples, the significance of muqarnas featured in this ceiling reflects the patron's will, Roger II as much as the Islamic technique used. The Norman monarchy was characterized by an atmosphere of cross-cultural exchange and tolerance where Arab, Greek, and Latin cultures coexisted in Sicily. The king's deliberate creation of a hybrid style made the resulting acculturation more palatable under a Christian ruler. Likewise, by mastering these visual languages, Roger II would be seen as dominating his subjects' three cultures. Therefore, in this instance, some scholars argue that the muqarnas are a manifestation of power by the king.