User:Rbutello/sandbox

Assigned Article: Biorefinery
My article is Biorefinery. This article is classified as S and a completeness score of 42. This article is a basic definition of the term Biorefinery but lacks additional information as how this concept can be integrated to existing processes, as the pulp and paper industry, in order to diversify the production of the current industry and make it more sustainable. The article can be complemented by describing Biorefinery existing processes and describing how these processes are promising for the current or future industry.

Peer review: Circular economy and Forest product
= Biorefinery =

A biorefinery is a refinery that converts biomass to energy and other beneficial byproducts (such as chemicals). The International Energy Agency Bioenergy Task 42 defined biorefining as "the sustainable processing of biomass into a spectrum of bio-based products (food, feed, chemicals, materials) and bioenergy (biofuels, power and/or heat)". As refineries, biorefineries can provide multiple chemicals by fractioning an initial raw material (biomass) into multiple intermediates (carbohydrates, proteins, triglycerides) that can be further converted into value-added products. .The use of biomass as feedstock can provide a benefit by reducing the impacts on the environment, as lower pollutants emissions and reduction in the emissions of hazard products. In addition, biorefineries are intended to achieve the following goals :


 * 1) Supply the current fuels and chemical building blocks
 * 2) Supply new building blocks for the production of novel materials with disruptive characteristics
 * 3) Creation of new jobs, including rural areas
 * 4) Valorization of waste (agricultural, urban, and industrial waste)

Classification of Biorefinery systems[edit]
Biorefineries can be classified based in four main features :


 * 1) Platforms: Refers to key intermediates between raw material and final products. The most important intermediates are:
 * 2) * Biogas from anaerobic digestion
 * 3) * Syngas from gasification
 * 4) * Hydrogen from water-gas shift reaction, steam reforming, water electrolysis and fermentation
 * 5) * C6 sugars from hydrolysis of sucrose, starch, cellulose and hemicellulose
 * 6) * C5 sugars (e.g., xylose, arabinose: C5H10O5), from hydrolysis of hemicellulose and food and feed side streams
 * 7) * Lignin from the processing of lignocellulosic biomass.
 * 8) * Liquid from Pyrolysis (pyrolysis oil)
 * 9) Products: Biorefineries can be grouped in two main categories according to the conversion of biomass in a energetic or non-energetic product. In this classification the main market must be identified:
 * 10) * Energy-driven biorefinery systems: The main product is a second energy carrier as biofuels, power and heat.
 * 11) * Material-driven biorefinery systems: The main product is a biobased product
 * 12) Feedstock: Dedicated feedstocks (Sugar crops, starch crops, lignocellulosic crops, oil-based crops, grasses, marine biomass); and residues (oil-based residues, lignocellulosic residues, organic residues and others)
 * 13) Processes: Conversion process to transform biomass into a final product:
 * 14) * Mechanical/physical: The chemical structure of the biomass components is preserved. This operation includes pressing, milling, separation, distillation, among others
 * 15) * Biochemical: Processes under low temperature and pressure, using microorganism or enzymes.
 * 16) * Chemical processes: The substrate suffer change by the action of a external chemical (e.g., hydrolysis, transesterification, hydrogenation, oxidation, pulping)
 * 17) * Thermochemical: Severe conditions are apply to the feedstock (high pressure and high temperature, with or without catalyst).

The aforementioned features are used to classified biorefineries systems according to the following method:


 * 1) Identify the feedstock, the main technologies included in the process, platform, and the final product(s)
 * 2) Draw the scheme of the refinery using the features identified in step 1.
 * 3) Label the refinery system according by citing the number of platforms, products, feedstock, and processes involved
 * 4) Elaborate a table with the features identified,and the source of internal energy demand

Some examples of classifications are:


 * C6 sugar platform biorefinery for bioethanol and animal feed from starch crops.


 * Syngas platform biorefinery for FT-diesel and phenols from straw


 * C6 and C5 sugar and syngas platform biorefinery for bioethanol, FT-diesel and furfural from saw mill residues.

Economic viability of biorefinery systems
Techno-economic assessment (TEA) is a methodology to evaluate whether a technology or process is economically attractive. TEA research has been developed to provide information about the performance of the biorefinery concept in diverse production systems as sugarcane mills, biodiesel production, pulp and paper mills, and the treatment of industrial and municipal solids waste.

Bioethanol plants and sugarcane mills are well-established processes where the biorefinery concept can be implemented since sugarcane bagasse is a feasible feedstock to produce fuels and chemicals ; lignocellulosic bioethanol (2G) is produced in Brazil in two plants with capacities of 40 and 84 Ml/y (about 0.4% of the production capacity in Brazil). TEA of ethanol production using mild liquefaction of bagasse plus simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation shows a minimum selling price between 50.38 and 62.72 US cents/L which is comparable with the market price. The production of xylitol, citric acid and glutamic acid from sugarcane lignocellulose (bagasse and harvesting residues), each in combination with electricity have been evaluated ; the three biorefinery systems were simulated to be annexed to an existing sugar mill in South Africa. The production of xylitol and glutamic acid has shown economic feasibility with an Internal Rate of Return (IRR) of 12.3% and 31.5%, exceeding the IRR of the base case (10.3%). Likewise, the production of ethanol, lactic acid or methanol and ethanol-lactic acid from sugarcane bagasse have been studied ; lactic acid demonstrated to be economically attractive by showing the greatest net present value (M$ 476–1278); in the same way; the production of ethanol and lactic acid as co-product was found to be a favorable scenario (net present value between M$ 165 and M$ 718) since this acid has applications in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, chemical and food industry.

As for biodiesel production, this industry also has the potential to integrate biorefinery systems to convert residual biomasses and wastes into biofuel, heat, electricity and bio-based green products. Glycerol is the main co-product in biodiesel production and can be transformed into valuable products through chemocatalytic technologies; the valorization of glycerol for the production of lactic acid, acrylic acid, allyl alcohol, propanediols, and glycerol carbonate has been evaluated ; all glycerol valorization routes shown to be profitable, being the most attractive the manufacture of glycerol carbonate. Palm empty fruit bunches (EFB) are an abundant lignocellulosic residues from the palm oil/biodiesel industry, the conversion of this residue into ethanol, heat and power, and cattle feed were evaluated according to techno-economic principles, the scenarios under study shown reduced economic benefits, although their implementation represented a reduction in the environmental impact (climate change and fossil fuel depletion) compared to the traditional biodiesel production. The economic feasibility for bio-oil production from EFB via fast pyrolysis using the fluidized-bed was studied, crude bio-oil can potentially be produced from EFB at a product value of 0.47 $/kg with a payback period and return on investment of 3.2 years and 21.9%, respectively. The integration of microalgae and Jatropha as a viable route for the production of biofuels and biochemicals has been analyzed in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) context. Three scenarios were examined; in all of them, biodiesel and glycerol is produced; in the first scenario biogas and organic fertilizer is produced by anaerobic fermentation of Jatropha fruit cake and seedcake; the second scenario includes the production of lipids from jatropha and microalgae to produce biodiesel and the production of animal feed, biogas and organic fertilizer; the third scenario involves the production of lipids from microalgae for the production of biodiesel as well as hydrogen and animal feed as final product; only the first scenario was profitable.

In regard to the pulp and paper industry; lignin is a natural polymer co-generated and is generally used as boiler fuel to generate heat or steam to cover the energy demand in the process. Since lignin accounts for 10–30 wt% of the available lignocellulosic biomass  and is equivalent to ~40% of its energy contents; the economics of biorefineries depend on the cost-effective processes to transform lignin into value-added fuels and chemicals. The conversion of an existing Swedish kraft pulp mill to the production of dissolving pulp, electricity, lignin, and hemicellulose has been studied ; self-sufficiency in terms of steam and the production of excess steam was a key factor for the integration of a lignin separation plant; in this case; the digester has to be upgraded for preserving the same production level and represents 70 % of the total investment cost of conversion. The potential of using the kraft process for producing bioethanol from softwoods in a repurposed or co-located kraft mill has been studied, a sugar recovery higher than 60% enables the process to be competitive for the production of ethanol from softwood. The repurposing of a kraft pulp mill to produce both Ethanol and dimethyl-ether has been investigated ; in the process, cellulose is separated by and an alkaline pretreatment and then is hydrolyzed and fermented to produce ethanol, while the resulting liquor containing dissolved lignin is gasified and refined to dimethyl ether; the process demonstrate to be self-sufficient in terms of hot utility (fresh steam) demand but with a deficit of electricity;  the process can be feasible, economically speaking, but is highly dependent on the development of biofuel prices. The exergetic and economic evaluation for the production of catechol from lignin was performed to determine its feasibility ; the results showed that the total capital investment was 4.9 M$ based on the plant capacity of 2,544 kg/d of feedstock; besides, the catechol price was estimated to be 1,100 $/t and the valorization ratio was found to be 3.02.

The high generation of waste biomass is an attractive source for conversion to valuable products, several biorefinery routes has been proposed to upgrade waste streams in valuable products. The production of biogas from banana peel (Musa paradisiaca) under the biorefinery concept is a promissory alternative since is possible to obtain biogas and other co-products including ethanol, xylitol, syngas, and electricity; this process also provides high profitability for high production scales. The economic assessment of the integration of organic waste anaerobic digestion with other mixed culture anaerobic fermentation technologies was studied ; the highest profit is obtained by dark fermentation of food waste with separation and purification of acetic and butyric acids (47 USD/t of foodwaste). The technical feasibility, profitability and extent of investment risk to produce sugar syrups from food and beverage waste was analyzed ; the returns on investment shown to be satisfactory for the production of fructose syrup (9.4%), HFS42 (22.8%) and glucose-rich syrup (58.9%); the sugar syrups also have high cost competitiveness with relatively low net production costs and minimum selling prices. The valorization of municipal solid waste through integrated mechanical biological chemical treatment (MBCT) systems for the production of levulinic acid has been sutudied, the revenue from resource recovery and product generation (without the inclusion of gate fees) is more than enough to out- weigh the waste collection fees, annual capital and operating costs.

Environmental impact of biorefinery systems
One of the main goals of biorefineries is to contribute to a more sustainable industry by the conservation of resources and by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and other pollutants. Nevertheless; other environmental impacts may be associated to the production of biobased products; as land use change, eutrophication of water, the pollution of the environment with pesticides, or higher energy and material demand that lead to environmental burdens. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a methodology to evaluate the environmental load of a process, from the extraction of raw materials to the end use. LCA can be used to investigate the potential benefits of biorefinery systems; multiple LCA studies has been developed to analyse whether biorefineries are more environmentally friendly compared to conventional alternatives.

Feedstock is one of the main sources of environmental impacts in the biofuel production, the source of this impacts are related to the field operation to grow, handle and transport the biomass to the biorefinery gate. Agricultural residues are the feedstock with the lowest environmental impact followed by lignocellulosic crops; and finally by first-generation arable crops, although the environmental impacts are sensitive to factors such as crop management practices, harvesting systems, and crop yields. The production of chemicals from biomass feedstock has shown environmental benefits; bulk chemicals from biomass-derived feedstocks have been studied showing savings on non renewable energy use and greenhouse gas emissions. The environmental assessment for 1G and 2G ethanol shows that these two biorefinery systems are able to mitigate climate change impacts in comparison to gasoline, but higher climate change benefits are achieved with 2G ethanol production (up to 80% reduction). The conversion of palm empty fruit bunches into valuable products (ethanol, heat and power, and cattle feed) reduces the impact for climate change and fossil fuel depletion compared to the traditional biodiesel production; but the benefits for toxicity and eutrophication are limited. Propionic acid produced by fermentation of glycerol leads to significant reduction of GHG emissions compared to fossil fuel alternatives; however the energy input is double and the contribution to eutrophication is significantly higher The LCA for the integration of butanol from prehydrolysate in a Canadian Kraft dissolving pulp mill shows that the carbon footprint of this butanol may be 5% lower compare to gasoline; but is not as low as corn butanol (23% lower than that of gasoline). The majority of the LCA studies for the valorization of food waste have been focused on the environmental impacts on biogas or energy production, with only few on the synthesis of high value-added chemicals ; hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) has been listed as one of the top 10 bio-based chemicals by the US Department of Energy; the LCA of eight food waste valorization routes for the production of HMF shows that the most environmentally favorable option uses less polluting catalyst (AlCl3) and co-solvent (acetone), and provides the highest yield of HMF (27.9 Cmol%), metal depletion and  toxicity impacts (marine ecotoxicity, freshwater toxicity, and human toxicity) were the categories with the highest values.

Biorefinery in the pulp and paper industry
The pulp and paper industry is considered as the first industrialized biorefinery system; in this industrial process other co-products are produced including  tall oil, rosin, vanillin, and lignosulfonates. Apart from these co-products; the system includes energy generation (in for of steam and electricity) to cover its internal energy demand; and it has the potential to feed heat and electricity to the grid.

This industry has consolidated as the highest consumer of biomass; and uses not only wood as feedstock, it is capable of processing agricultural waste as bagasse, rice straw and corn stover. Other important features of this industry is a well-established logistic for biomass production, avoids competition with food production for fertile land, and presents higher biomass yields.

Rodrigo's peer review by Mochen Liao
- It seems this concept in Wikipedia is not mature, what you have added becomes very useful as the start of developing and extending this article. - As to the examples, you can write a more specific introduction, or may categorize them from the aspect you designed. - Later on, I think you can edit the table of content by subdividing different aspects of biorefinery, including feedstocks, technologies, products, and applications etc. - Hope you can make this article perfect, your contribution can be very rich.

Peer review by KristenTomberlin
Biorefinery: This is a great article so far! I think it introduces the topic well in general terms. A small thing I suggest is linking the Refinery page when you mention it in the second paragraph, can help people find related information easily. I would also like to see the external links be used to expand your article, I think they will be particularly helpful with the examples section. As Mochen suggested, dividing the article into potential subcategories will be important and also help you get ideas on where you can expand. Awesome job so far!

Response to peer review comments
Both peer reviews recommended a more specific introduction and the inclusion of other sections; these changes are accepted.

Two sections were included in the article; the first one is goals that biorefineries have to achieve, this section complement the introduction. The second section added is “Classification of biorefinery systems”, this sections describes the features of a biorefinery system according to the biomass feedstock, technology, and final product. For both sections references were added.

Kristen recommended to include a link for the term "Refinery"; this has been added. Additional links were added for other terms that can be of interest for the reader (building block and pyrolysis oil).

Another section added to the document is "Biorefinery in the pulp and paper industry"; this section will be further developed.